PHYSICS
UNIT'S
Seven Fundamental Quantities & units (SI units)
1. length → Meter(m)
2. Mass → Kilogram (kg)
3. Time → Second(s)
4. Electric current → Ampere (A)
5. Temperature → Kelvin (K)
6. Luminous/light intensity → Candela(Cd)
7. Amount of substance(concentration) → Mole (mol)
Supplementary Fundamental Quantities and Their Units = 02
1. Plane angle → Radian (rad)
2. Solid angle → Steradian (sr)
Systems of Units
(i) CGS System : Centimetre, Gram & Second
(ii) FPS System : Foot, pound & second
(iii) MKS System : Meter, Kilogram & second
(iv) SI System : Accepted internationally.
1. Length
1 Light year(LY) = 9.46 x 10¹⁵ = 10¹⁶m = distance travel by light in space in one year.
1 Astronomical unit(AU) = 1.5 x 10¹¹m = Avg. dist b/w centre of earth & sun.
1 Parsec = 3.26 LY= 3.08 x 10¹⁶ m.
1 X-ray unit = 10⁻¹³ m
1 Angstrom (A⁰) = 10⁻¹⁰ m
1 Micrometer = 10⁻⁶ m
1 Nanometre = 10⁻⁹ m
2. Mass
1 Quintal = 100 kg
1 Metric Ton = 1000kg
1 Pound = 0.4537 kg
1 amu = 1.66 x 10⁻²³ kg
3. Time
Tropical year → Year in which total solar eclipse occurs.
4. Volume
1 litre = 1/10³ m³
1 m³ = 10³ ltr
1ml = 1 cm³.
Gallon = 3.785 ltr.
5. Force
SI unit = Newton
1 dyne = 1/10⁵ N
1 kgf = 9.81 N
6. Pressure
Si unit = N/m² or Pascal.
1 kgf-m² = 9.81N/m²
1 mm of Hg = 133 N/m²
1 pascal = 1 N/m²
1 atmosphere pressure = 76 cm of Hg = 1.01 x 10⁵ pascal.
7. Work and energy
1 erg = 1/10⁷J
1 kgf-m = 9.81 J
1 kWh = 3.6 x 10⁶ J
1 eV = 1.6 x 10⁻¹⁹ Joule
8. Power
1 kgf- m/s = 9.81 Watt
1 Horsepower = 746 Watt.
Industries → horsepower
Unit less Quantities
Relative density, Strain
Others Quantities :
Astronomical distance → Light year
Acceleration & retardation → m/s²
Capacitance → faraday
Electric charge → Coulomb(si), Ampere second (q = it).
Electric conductance → Siemens,
Electric current = Ampere(si), Coulomb/hr
Electric potential or voltage : Volt(si),
Entropy = joule per Kelvin
Energy & work = joule,
Force : Newton (si)
G : Nm²/Kg²
Heat Capacity = joule/Kelvin
Heat = joule(SI)
hardness = moh
impedance, electric resistance = ohm
illuminance = Lux
inductance → henry
intensity of illumination = Lux
radioactivity = Becquerel, Curie,
lens power = Diopter
Momentum = Newton second, Kg m/s (SI)
Magnetic flux → Weber(si)
Magnetic flux density, magnetite field strength & magnetic induction → Ampere/meter, Tesla.
magnetic permeability : henry/meter
Pressure = pascal or N/m²(si), Torr
Power : joule/sec, watt,
Electric power or energy → kWh
Resistivity ( ρ) = mho, ohm-meter,
Resistance → ohm,
impedance : ohm
relative density, specific gravity = no unit
weight & force : Newton (si),
Stress, E = pascal, N/m²(si)
Sound intensity, noise → Decibel (Db), watt/m²(si)
Speed & Velocity : m/s(si)
Measurement
Atomic radii → Nanometer (1/10⁹)
Wavelength → meter(si)
Unit Conversion
1 pound = 16 ounces
1 horsepower = 746 watt
1N = 10⁵dyne = 1 kg m/s²
1 Pascal = 1N/m²
1 Watt = 1 Nm/sec = 1 joule/sec
1 kilowatt = 1000 watt = 1000 joule/sec
1 unit = 1 kwh = 3.6 x 10⁶joule
1 atmosphere = 1.01 x 10⁵ Pa
1 Diopter = 1/m
1 coulomb/sec = 1 ampere
1 dyne = 1g.cm/s² = 10 ⁻⁵ N
Femto = 10 ⁻¹⁵, Peta = 10¹⁵
1 pico = 1/10¹²,
1 nano = 10⁻⁹, nano come from greek word means dwarf
Physical Quantities
i). Scaler
only magnitude but no direction
Ex. mass , speed , volume, work, time ,power, energy, pressure, electric current,
electric current has a direction but it is a Scalar quantity bcz it doesn't obey triangle law
ii). Vector
both magnitude & direction
ex. displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, torque, Weight, impulse,
For a quantity to be a vector, it is necessary that it follows the triangle rule of addition of two vectors.
iii). Tensor
diff values in diff directⁿ
Ex. moment of inertia, refractive index,stress, pressure, E, radii of gyration
MOTION
Distance & Displacement
Displacement (-ve,+ve or 0) ≤ distance.
Distance → Scalar quantity, Displacement → Vector.
Distance can't be -ve.
Rectilinear motion : object moves in straight line
Distance = Speed x time = St
Displacement = Velocity x time = vt
Displacement ≤ distance
Velocity decreases with time then acceleration is -ve.
a = V/t = (V2 - V1)/t
V = constant → a = 0.
V increases → a = +ve
V decreases → a = -ve → Retardation
V ∝ t → uniform acceleration.
F, a, V have the same direction.
Distance vs time graph
Slope of graph = Acceleration.
Uniform acceleration or uniform speed → Straight line, eg. free falling body.
Accelerated (Non uniform) or Speed change → Curved line
Rest or a = V = 0 → parallel to time axis
Equation of motion 1D
motion under gravity, replaces a by +g(downward) & -g(upward) , s by h.
First eqn
v = u + at
rltⁿ b/w velocity & time
Second eqn
s = ut + ½at² = ½(u + v)t
relatⁿ b/w position & time
Third eqn
v² = u² + 2as
relatⁿ b/w position & velocity
s = vt (uniform Velocity)
Angular Velocity → ω = θ/t
Newton's Law (1687)
Not applicable for particles moving with speed of light.
1st law or galileo or law of inertia
unless acted upon by external force a body remains in its state.
Gives definition of force
ex. While jumping from a slowly moving train/bus one must run for a short distance, in the direction of motion.
2nd law
Force ∝ Rate of change in momentum
Gives magnitude/strength of force
f = ma = m∆v/∆t = δM/δt
1 N = 1 Kg x 1 m/s^2
helps to understand the effect of force
3rd law
every action = equal & opp reaction
Eg. Recoil of a gun , motion of rocket or rocket launch, swimming, Bogies of the trains are provided with buffers to avoid severe jerks during shunting of trains.
Force
vector quantity
SI unit → Newton
interaction b/w two bodies.
F = √(F1² + F2² + 2F1F2cosθ)
F = ma = m(v-u)/t = impulse/t
Akele nahi hota
Momentum
M = mass x velocity = mv
Vector quantity (Both magnitude & direction)
SI unit = Kg m/s
Principle of conservation of linear moment
m1v1 + m2v2 = (m1 + m2)v.
Total momentum of body before collision = after collision but KE changes → bodies movies in opposite directions after collision
Application → Rocket flying, Bullet from gun,
Gun → mv(bullet) = MV(gun)
inertia
Tendency to resist change in current state
Measured in terms of mass.
More mass → more inertia
ex. Leafs fall down if we shake the tree,
impulse
i = force x time = Change in momentum.
i = Ft = M2 - M1
Large force for small time
Oppose Phase change static to movement & vice versa.
Torque
directⁿ : perpendicular to directⁿ of applied force
SI unit = newton second
Friction
force which oppose the relative motion b/w two bodies in contact
frictional force applied to opposite to the direction of force
work done by friction force is always -ve.
work done by frictⁿ is converted to thermal energy
Static > Sliding > Rolling friction
Static friction
maximum value of static frictⁿ is called limiting frictⁿ.
Kinetic friction
Sliding
Rolling
CIRCULAR MOTION
Object moves along a circular path
Direction → by the tangent to the circle at that point.
Centripetal force: external force required to act radially inward over the circular motion.
Centrifugal force: pseudo force that is equal and opposite to centripetal force.
*Cream separator, centrifugal dryer work on the principle of centrifugal force.
Pendulum clock → mechanical
Uniform Circular Motion
v = 2πr / t
Projectile motion
Trajectory → path of a projectile which is parabola.
At highest point → downwards acceleration, V = 0, a =g.
Large angle wrt Horizontal → high trajectory
Acceleration always constant = g
h = u²sin² θ / 2g
Max ht. at θ = 90° hmax = u²/2g
Flight time = 2 x time required to reach max ht.
Range(R) = u²sin2θ / g
max range at 45°
θ & 90 - θ gives same R
Simple Harmonic motion
acceleration ∝ displacement
T = 2π√(m/k) = 2π√(l/g) = 1/f,
ω = √(k/m)
T on moon > earth
PE (U) = 0.5 kx²
Eg. Pendulum,
Periodic motion
any motion which repeats itself ex. Hands of clock, motion of earth around sun, needle of a sewing machine & Pendulum
Angular acceleration = Torque / moment of inertia
GRAVITATION
Gravitation force
actⁿ at a distance force
force of attraction b/w two masses or bodies
it is a weak force
ex.solar system, jwar-bhata, moon around earth,
Work done by GF = mgh = mg(h2 -h1).
Inside spacecraft wt.= zero.
Newton's law of G
F ∝ m1 x m2 & F ∝ 1/r²
F = G m1m2 / r²
Gravitational constant G = 6.67 x 10 ⁻¹¹Nm²/Kg²
Henry Cavendish 1st determine value of G
The value of G is the same on earth & moons.
Gravity (g)
gravitational force of earth
if two bodies are released from the same ht. they reach on ground at same time
speed of rotation of earth ↑es then wt. of body decreases
when a body is dropped & there is no air Resistance than its speed ↑eses & acceleration remain constant.
free fall is possible only in vacuum
g = 9.8m/s²(earth), g = 0.378m/s²(mercury)
g of moon or lunar = ⅙ of earth
wt on moon = ⅙ of actual wt on earth.
g of mercury = 38 % of earth.
Acceleration due to gravity is independent of shape, size and mass of the body.
Wt of body → at centre of gravity.
Work done by Gravity = mg(Hf - Hi)
Variation of g
W = mg
g' = g/(1 ± h/R)², h = distance from earth surface, R = earth radii & up from surface +ve & down from surface -ve
g = GM/R² , M & R are Earth mass & radius.
Max at pole & min at equator
Zero at earth's centre → wt = 0 at centre of earth.
g ∝ 1/earth rotation speed
g ∝ 1/angular speed of earth
Lift
Upwards movement → Apparent wt. > True wt.
Downwards → Apparent wt. < True wt.
Uniform speed or acceleration & up or down: Apparent wt. = True wt.
Cord of lift broken or freefall → apparent wt. = Zero
Downwards & a > g → body goes in contact with ceiling.
Kapler's law of planetary motⁿ
1st Law (law of orbit)
every planet moves around the sun in an elliptical orbit.
2nd law (law of Area)
planet speed ∝ 1/distance from sun
planet speed max = perigee & min = apogee
3rd law (law of periods)
T² ∝ r³
T = period of revolution & r = semi-major axis of the orbit.
Satellite
Satellite revolve due to force of gravity
Natural satellite → Moon,
Artificial satellite → INSAT-B,
The Polar satellite revolves around the Earth in polar orbit at a height of 800 km (approx). Time period of these satellites is 84 min, used for weather forecasting, mapping, etc.
Geo-stationary satellite is used to telecast TV programmes, weather forecasting, prediction of flood & droughts.
Escape velocity (Ve)
Ve ∝ g
earth Ve = 11.2km/s
moon Ve = 2.4km/s, Due to low escape velocity there is no atmosphere on the Moon.
Ve: Jupiter > earth > moon
The speed of the boy sitting on the swing is Oscillatory.
MECHANICS
WORK (W)
Scalar quantity (Only magnitude, No direction)
W = F.dcosθ = mgh = ∆KE = ½ m(V2² - V1²) = Force x Displacement.
Unit → joule, Newton meter, kg m²/s² ,
The work function : min amount of work necessary to remove free electron
Objects must be displaced to do work.
(+ve) work (θ > 90)
displacement occur in directⁿ of force
(-ve) work (θ < 90)
d in the opposite direction of F (θ = 180°).
Work done by Air on moving car
Zero work (θ = 90°)
F & d are perpendicular i.e, θ = 90°
Displacement = 0
ex.centripetal force of uniform circular motion, Coolie or portar lifts luggage, Earth revolving around Sun, Satellite revolving around planets.
Diff Case
W = qV = Charge(q) x Potential diff (V)
1J = 1C x 1V.
ENERGY (E)
Capacity of doing work or efficiency of work or strength of object
Scalar quantity
Unit = joule, commercial unit = kWh
Mechanical energy = PE + KE = Constant.
Energy neither be created nor be destroyed
i) Potential energy
Due to position, shape or configuration
ex. water collected at ht. like dam, energy of spring in watch , stretched bow & rubber band, energy in compressed spring, raised hammer,
PE = mgh, (PE = joule, m = kg, h = m, g =m/s^2.)
ii) Kinetic energy
Due to motion
KE is always +ve.
KE = ½mv² = M²/2m
Momentum → M = mv
if M =2Mi → KE = 4KEi
ex. windmill, bullet fired from gun, speed of simple Pendulum,
Gas particles have max KE
KE → Gas > Liquid > Solid, Gun < Bullet.
Absolute zero temp. when kinetic energy = 0
Example of both PE & KE
Flying aeroplanes, Body falling from mountain
Pendulum converts PE into KE.
Energy transform
Loudspeaker → electrical to sound
Electric motor → electrical to mechanical
Dynamo → mechanical to electrical
Photocell → light to electrical
Turbine → kinetic to mechanical
POWER (P)
Rate of work done or energy transfer rate
P = Work/time = Energy/time = Force x Velocity = mgh/t
P = V²/R = VI = I²R.
Watt = joule/sec
1HP = 746 watt
1kWh = 3.6 x 10⁶ joule
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
ELASTICITY
regain original shape & size after removal of force
Steel is more elastic than rubber.
Deforming force is a force, which changes the configuration of a body.
coeff of restitution
perfectly elastic body or collision = 01
perfectly inelastic = 0
Plasticity
Ability of a material to deform without breaking
PRESSURE
P = Force/Area
N/m², Scalar quantity
P = ρgh ← by liquid column at surface.
at hills the boiling point of water will be less than at sea due to low atm. Pressure
Patm at sea level = 10⁵ Pascal = 760mm of Hg
P inside a aircraft > Outside P
Pressure cooker → pressure↑es , Temp ↑es & cook fast
Barometer → Atmospheric pressure
Storm → Sudden fall in barometric reading
Rain → Slow fall in barometric reading
Clear weather → Slow rise in the barometric reading
Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude. That is why
It is difficult to cook on the mountain.
The fountain pen of a passenger leaks in an aeroplane.
Bleeding occurs from the nose.
It is difficult to breathe at higher altitude due to less amount of partial pressure of oxygen in air.
Water starts to boil below 100°C.
Pascal’s Law of Pressure
Pressure is same at all points in a liquid, If gravitational attraction is negligible in equilibrium condition,
Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press and hydraulic brakes are based on Pascal's law of pressure.
MASS
The amount of matter contained in an object is called the mass of that object.
Constant Everywhere.
measure inertia
mass = force / acceleration = Weight/g
F = ma → Weight = mg
DENSITY
Density = mass/vol
Max density of water is at 4°C or 277K
ρ water = 1000 kg/m³,
Ρ → ice < water, sea water > normal water,
If ice floating in water in a vessel melts, the level of water in the vessel does not change.
Clouds float in the sky due to low density.
Relative Density
Relative density = Density of substance/Water density
Relative density is measured by a Hydro-meter.
BUOYANCY
Upthrust(Buoyant force) → upward force on floating body
Bubble rise up through liquid due to viscosity & buoyancy
When ice floats on water → its 0.1(10%) part outside water
ice melts water level remain same
Lactometer → based on Archimedes principle & measure purity of milk.
F = ρghA = ρgQ
Archimedes principle
Weight of body = wt of liquid displaced → body will float.
ρV = ρ’V’.
application → Lactometer, dsgⁿ of ships & submarine, Hydrometer,
SURFACE TENSION
σ = F/L, unit → N/m
σ ∝ 1/Temp, at critical temp σ = 0
σ clean water > soap solution
Rain drops form spherical shapes due to surface tension.
Formation of lead shots, spraying result in coldness, floatation of needle on water, dancing of camphor on water, are based on surface tension.
Cohesive force → Between molecules of same substance
Adhesive force → Between molecules of different substances
Capillarity
phenomenon of rise or depression of liquids in a capillary tube
A piece of blotting paper soaks ink because the pores of the blotting paper serve as capillary tubes.
The oil in the wick of a lamp rises due to capillary action of threads in the wick.
The root hairs of plants draw water from the soil through capillary action.
Viscosity
is the property of a fluid by virtue of which an internal frictional force acts between its layers, when it is in motion.
Bernoulli’s Theorem
Total energy per unit volume (pressure energy + kinetic energy + potential energy) is constant.
incompressible and non-viscous liquid (or gas)
Venturimeter, Atomizer, filter pump, motion of aeroplane are based upon Bernoulli's theorem.
Kinetic theory
Max kinetic energy = Gaseous state
Absolute zero temperature → when KE of particle = zero.
Particle attraction → Solid > Liquid > Gas.
During change in temp heat energy is stored in form of Kinetic energy
HEAT
Best conductor mercury(Hg)
1 calorie = 4.186 joule
C/5 = (K-273.15)/5 = (F-32)/9.
C = K - 273 → K = C + 273.
At (-40°C) → F = C = -40°.
Body temp = 37°C = 310°K = 98.6°F
Room temperature = 25°C =
at boiling point of liquids temperature remains constant
Cryogenics → Deal with very low Temp.
Freezing & Boiling point of water = 0°C(32°F) & 100°C
Latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 cal/g.
Latent heat of vaporisation of steam is 536 cal/g.
°C named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius
insulator of heat → Thermistor, Wool, Pb, Hg, Plastic, Paper, wood, Borosilicate glass,
Conductor of heat →
Heat Conductivity(K)
K → Watt / meter-kelvin
Solid → K ∝ 1/Temp
Liquids → K ∝ 1/Temp, K ∝ √(1/M)
Gas → K ∝ √(T/M), (Molecular mass)
Non metal or Semiconductor → K ∝ Temp.
K → Alloy < Parent Mattels
Absolute Zero
T = 0°K = - 273°C
a temp at which molecular motion in gas decreases to zero or ceases(stops)(KE = 0).
Transmission Of Heat
Directⁿ of heat flow depends on temp. (high to low temp)
Conduction → in Solid, Depends in ∆T, Size (body dimensions),
Convection → horizontal heat transfer within an environment, in liquid & gases, Earth's atmosphere
Radiation → Sunlight
Newton's cooling law
Loss of heat ∝ temp diff. (∆Q ∝ ∆T)
Loss of heat ∝ As
EVAPORATION
It is the slow process of conversion of liquid into its vapour even below its boiling temperature.
The amount of water vapour in air is called Humidity.
Relative humidity is measured by a Hygrometer.
Relative humidity ∝ temperature.
THERMODYNAMICS
Thermal equilibrium → Same Temperature
Entropy of Universe is Maximum
Zeroth law → if two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with some third body, then they are also in equilibrium with each other
1st law → Concept of energy conservation
2nd law → The state of the entropy of the entire universe, as an isolated system, will always increase over time.
3rd law → Entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero is zero.
Enthalpy
Measurement of energy in Thermodynamic system
H = U + ΔPV → ΔH = CpΔT
WAVES
V = n λ
f = 1/T
I ∝ A²
Velocity(m/s) = frequency(Hz) x wavelength(m)
frequency(Hz) = 1/time period(s)
intensity of wave ∝ Amplitude ²
Mechanical wave
require medium to propagate
Longitudinal mv → Particle vibrates in parallel direction, ex. sound wave, wave in spring.
Transverse mv → particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave, ex. Waves on strings under tension, waves on the surface of water.
Electromagnetic wave (Non mechanical wave)
Doesn't require any medium for propagation
All ev consists of Photons.
Electromagnetic wave are Transverse
Wavelength → Radio Wave > microwave > infra-red > visible > UV ray > X > γ rays (opp of energy & frequency).
Frequency(n) = speed of light(c) / wavelength(λ)
The following are not electromagnetic waves → Cathode ray, ultrasonic ray, α & β ray, sound wave, canal ray.
TV remote work on principle of infrared wave
Wave theory of light → by Christian Huygens
earth's surface re-emits heat in form of infrared radiation
γ rays produced during Radioactive decay.
magnetron valve → used to produce microwaves.
Microwaves can be detected using a Point contact diode.
Ultrasonic waves can't be polarised`.
Geiger tubes to detect γ rays
Microwaves are used in radar system
Tv broadcasting frequency → 30 - 300MHz, ionosphere
LIGHT
Light is a form of energy Propagate as Electromagnetic wave
Electromagnetic wave are Transverse & require no medium to travel
light behaves as both wave & particle
It takes 8 min 19 s to reach on the Earth from the Sun
light reflected from the Moon takes 1.28 s to reach Earth.
Photon → packet or bundle of energy E = hν
The Quantum theory of light was given by max planck
E = h ν = hc/λ, h = Planck's constant
Speed = 3 x 10⁸ m/s ( in vacuum & air)
Ole roemer (Danish Astronomer) measured the speed of light 1st time in 1676.
Astronaut see the sky Black from spacecraft
light travel fastest in vacuum
Refractive index ↑es → light speed ↓es
Umbra → no light reaches (complete dark)
Primary colour → Can't be created from a combination of colours ex. Red,green & blue
Red + Blue + Green = White
Yellow light (Sodium vapour lamp) → use of Sodium.
Opaque = अपारदर्शी, Transparent : = पारदर्शी, Translucent =
Luminous Body → emit light ex. Sun,stars, electric bulb, candle
Non-Luminous → moon
3Dmovies uses special colour lights which are not visible by human eyes.
Periscope → Two plane mirrors.
Microscope → Convex lenses
Pyrheliometer → meas. direct beam solar irradiance.
Reflection of Light
Light returns back
Light Density → Ability of Medium to Refract Light
R = 2f
1/f = 1/u + 1/v
u = obj distance & v = image distance.
All distances are measuerd from pole
f = -ve for concave & +ve for convex mirror.
max ∠ b/w IR & RR = 18°
∠i = b/w IR & Normal on the surface
Laws of reflection
IR, RR & Normal all lies in same plane
∠i = ∠r.
i).Plane mirror
f = ∞
Virtual, Erect, laterally inverted, same size image.
No. of image's = 360/θ - 1← formed by two mirror.
For a full image ht. of mirror = ½ of obj height.
object speed towards mirror = ½ of image speed.
ii). Concave or Converging mirror
inward Curvature
F = -ve
Image → inverted & Real || Erect & Virtual
∞ = at F (vice-versa)
b/w ∞ & C = b/w C & F (vice - versa)
at C = at C
b/w F & P = Behind mirror
Use → Shaving glass, Search light, Vehicle head light, Solar cooker, By doctors to examine eyes, ears, nose & throat.
iii). Convex or Diverging mirror
Outwards curvature
F = +ve.
image → Always Virtual, Erect & Diminished
at ∞ = at F
in front of mirror = b/w P & F
Use → Rear view mirror in vehicle, Street light, Sodium reflector lamp.
Pole → Centre of reflecting surface of spherical mirror
Aperture → Dia of Reflecting Surface
Magnification = image distance/object = v/u = height of image/object.
Refraction of Light
Bending of the ray of light passing from one medium to other medium
its frequency and phase do not change but wavelength and velocity change.
Refractive index
Absolute refractive index = Speed of light in vacuum/matter > 1.
Refractive index of matter = Speed of light in air/matter > 1
Speed of light in medium = (3 x 10⁸) /RI
n = c/v > 1
F’ = RI x F
Absolute Refractive index
Air = 1.0003
Ice = 1.31
Water = 1.333
Kerosine = 1.44
Benzin = 1.5
Salt = 1.54
Diamond = 2.43
Laws of refraction
IR ,RR & normal drawn → on same plane
Snell's law → sini/sinr = refractive index = constant
illustration of refraction
Twinkling of stars
Obj. in liquid
Oval shape of Sun at morning & evening
image formed by eye
Rainbow formation
Lens
1/f = 1/v - 1/u
Power(dioptre) = 1/focus (m).
f = -ve (concave lens) & +ve (Convex lens)
Lens is made up of flint glass.
Contact lens are made up of Hydrogel
When the lens is dipped in a liquid of higher refractive index, the focal length increases and convex lenses behave as concave lenses and vice-versa.
An air bubble trapped in water or glass appears as convex, but behaves as a concave lens.
Convex lens
C = 2F1
Magnifying glass is convex lens
Image → Erect & Virtual || inverted & real
∞ = at F (vice-versa)
beyond C = b/w C & F (vice - versa)
at C = at C
b/w F & O = Same side of lens
Concave lens
Always Virtual & erect
at ∞ = at F
b/w ∞ & lens = b/w lens & F on same side
Critical Angle
Angle of incidence in denser medium for which Refraction angle = 90°
light goes denser to rarer medium
i). Total internal Reflection
Denser medium → Rarer medium
Angle of incidence > critical angle
Use
Sparkling of diamond
Mirage & looming
Shining or glittering of air bubbles in water
Optical Fibre
ii). Dispersion
White light splitted in Seven colours ← Prism.
Deviation ∝ 1/wavelength → Red = min & Violet = max.
V<I<B<G<Y<O<R in ↑es wavelength
*Rainbow🌈→ Dispersion + Refraction + Reflection.
Primary colour: Red, Green, Blue (RGB)
Complementary colour: Green & magenta, Blue & yellow, Red & cyan.
The Red & Green combination is most convenient during day & night time.
iii). Scattering of light
Blue colour of sky, White colour of clouds
Brilliant Red colour of Rising & Setting Sun.
max→Violet, min →Red.
Tyndall effect → scattering of light by a medium containing small suspended particles.
Alpenglow → mountain tops acquire a rosy or orange colour around sunrise & sunset.
iv). Atmospheric Refraction
Twinkling of stars
Advance sunrise and delayed sunset sun visible 2min before sunrise & about 2min after actual sunset.
Polarisation
Light is Transverse wave
Tyndall effet
Human Eye
Basically a convex lens
Least distance of distinct vision = 25cm
Cornea: light enter eye through it,
Retina : work as a Screen, Real & inverted image of obj, photoreceptor are found.
iris : ctrl size of pupil,focus light,ctrl focus of lens, b/w cornea & lens.
Pupil regulates and controls the amount of light entering the eye.
Ciliary Muscles → Help modify the curvature in an eyes lens
Defects
i) Myopia/Short sightedness
Can see near obj but not far
Diverging (Concave lens)
image formed in front of the retina due to (i) excessive curvature of the eye lens, or (ii) elongation of the eyeball
ii) Hyperopia / Hypermetropia/Long sightedness
Can see far but not near
Converging (Convex lens)
image formed behind the retina bcz (i) the focal length of the eye lens is too long, or (ii) the eyeball has become too small.
If affected by both myopia & hypermetropia then Bifocal lens is used.
iii) Presbyopia
Power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases with ageing.
elderly person → nearby obj can't seen
Bifocal lens or two separate lenses.
iv) Astigmatism:
cannot see horizontal and vertical lines clearly.
cylindrical lens.
v) Cataract
crystalline lens become milky & cloudy at old age
surgery.
C.V.Raman
Born in 1888 in tamilnadu
Bharat ratna in 1954
Nobel prize in 1930 for work on the scattering of light
Microscope
Simple microscope: a convex lens of small focal length.
Compound microscope: combination of two convex lenses, called objective lens and eyepiece,
Astronomical Telescope: Also a combination of two lenses in which the objective lens is a convex lens of large aperture and large focal length while eye-piece is a convex lens of small aperture and small focal length.
SOUND WAVE
Sound waves are Longitudinal mechanical waves → require medium.
Sound protection → techniques to Absorb noise
Sound → due to vibrations
Compression & Rarefaction is due to Air pressure
Sonic boom → very sharp & loud sound produced by shock waves in air produced by source moving with a speed higher than the sound
Tone → Same frequency sound
Reverberation: repeated reflection that results in persistence of sound.
Stethoscope 🩺 works on principle of reflection of sound
Diffraction → waves like sound & light bend at edges of object , & we here sound from another room
Audible or sound wave
f = 20Hz - 20000Hz (WHO = 45db)
WHO → 80dB is highest safe exposure level for human beings
infrasonic waves
f < 20Hz
Produce by source of bigger size like Earthquake, volcanic eruption, ocean wave , elephant & whales
Ultrasonic wave
f > 20000 Hz(20kHz)
Source → Bats ,Galton's whistle,Hartmans generator.
Detected by → Bats ,cats,dogs, mosquitoes.
Use → Ultrasonography, sending signals,meas depth of sea,
Ultrasound → used to detect cracks & flaws in metal blocks
Super sonic → speed > sound speed
Sound level (db)
Rustling of tree leaves = 20db
Speed of Sound
Nature of medium determine sound speed
Solid > liquid > gases & vacuum = zero
independent of frequency & pressure
in gas ∝ 1√ρgas
V ∝ Temp (in Summer > Winter)
more in humid air than dry air.
Sound from one medium to another → Speed & wavelength changes but frequency remains same.
Supersonic speed → Speed > Sound Speed.
Characteristics
i) intensity (I)
I is amount of sound energy passing in the unit area per second
watt/m², dB
Loudness ∝ intensity ∝ Amplitude
Loudness unit dB & phon
very low audio sound I = 0 dB
Amplitude of sound depends on the force of vibration of the body.
ii) Pitch
Sensation of a frequency
The way the brain interprets the frequency of sound is called pitch
Pitch distinguishes a sharp(shrill) sound from a grave(dull or flat) sound.
P ∝ frequency
iii) Quality
depends on no , frequency & relative intensities of over tones
Shrill voice of women's due to high frequency
Echo
Repetition of sound due to reflection of sound waves,
min distance = 17m(16.6) b/w observer & reflector
Persistence of ear = 0.1sec = 1/10 sec ← Effect of sound on ear
fiberboards are used to reduce echo in the Auditorium.
Doppler’s Effect
if there is a relative motion between source of sound and observer, the apparent frequency of sound heard by the observer is different from the actual frequency of sound emitted by the source.
When the distance between the source and observer decreases, then apparent frequency increases and vice-versa.
SONAR: Sound navigation and Ranging
Meas distance, directⁿ & speed of object under water
Use → Transmitter & detector
RADAR: Radio detection and Ranging.
Human Ears
Cochlea → sound vibration into electrical signals
Larynx → organ to produce sound in human being
ELECTRICITY
Silver → Best conductor of electricity
Lead → Poor conductor of electricity
Except Graphite all Nonmetals are insulator of electricity
Lightning conductor should be made of a good conductor like copper with sharp pointed edge
Power transformer → Faraday law
Distance covered by body ∝ t^3/2.
Charging by friction
Rubbing creates charges of equal magnitude but opposite in nature
Glass rod with a silk cloth → Glass rod (+ve), Silk cloth(-ve) charge
Rubber balloon with woollen cloth → Rubber balloon (-ve), Woollen cloth (+ve)
Electric Current
Electric Current (I)
Rate of flow of electric charges or charge flowing per unit time
I = Q/t
1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb/1 sec → 1A = 1C/s
Charge Q = ne = It = CV , n = Some integer,
1e = 1.6 x 10⁻¹⁹C & 1A = 6.25 x 10¹⁸ electrons
Ammeter measures electric current in a circuit & always connected in series, the resistance of an ideal ammeter is zero.
Its unit is ampere & Scalar quantity.
Frequency of direct current = Zero
Direction → in directⁿ of proton (+ve) & opp to electron (-ve)
metal wire → current is due to flow of electron
Two Parallel Conductor
Same direction → Repulsion force
Opp direction → Attraction force
Electric Potential & Potential Difference
Electric potential → Volt
Scalar quantity
The electrons move only if there is a difference of electric pressure called the Potential difference.
Potential difference (V) = Work done (W)/Charge (Q)
1 volt = 1 joule / 1 coulomb
W = QV = itV.
Voltmeter
measure potential difference
always connected in parallel
Resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinite.
Ohm's Law
I ∝ V → I = V/R → V = IR.
I ∝ 1/R ∝ A/L.
Resistance(R)
Property of a conductor to resist the flow of charges
R depends on material property.
R = V/I
1 ohm = 1 volt / 1 ampere
SI unit is ohm (Ω)
R ∝ L/A
R = ρ L/A
Rheostat → used to change the resistance in the circuit.
Resistance of the conductor depends (i) on its length, (ii) on its area of cross-section, and (iii) on the nature of its material.
Ammeter reading decreases to one-half when the length of the wire is doubled
for metals R ∝ Temp
for semiconductor & electrolytes R ∝ 1/Temp.
Wheat stone Bridge → To measure Resistance.
Resistivity or Specific resistance (ohm meter)(ρ)
ρ = RA/L
SI unit ρ → Ω m
ρ → Abonite > Hg > Ni > W > Ag, (W = Tungsten & Ag = Silver)
ρ of Alloy > its constituent metals.
Tamba = 1.69 x 10^8 Ωm
Insulator = 10^12 - 10^17 Ωm
Conductance
G =1/R
mho or siemen or ohm⁻¹
Conductivity = 1/Resistivity (mho m−¹)
Tungsten→ filament of bulb
Copper & Aluminium → Wires
Electric Circuit
Continuous and Closed path of an electric current.
i). Series Connection
R = R1 + R2 + R3….
I = I1 = I2 ..
V = V1 + V2 +..
When one component fails the circuit is broken and none of the components works
ii). Parallel Connection
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2…
I = I1 + I2 +..
V = V1 = V2 ..
Eg. Street light,
Joule’s law of Heating
Heating effect of electric current is known as Joule’s law of heating.
H ∝ I², H ∝ R, H ∝ t
Electric heat = Power x t = I²RT = VIt = V²t/R = Energy.
1 joule (J)= 1 watt x 1 second
1 unit = 1kWh = 3.6 x 10⁶ joule
Eg. Electric bulb, electric laundry iron, electric toaster, electric oven, electric kettle and electric heater.
Nickron is used in electirc heating device
Electric power
Rate at which electric energy is dissipated or consumed in an electric circuit
P = H/t = VI = V²/R = I²R
1 W = 1 Joule/sec = 1 volt × 1 ampere
Other formulas.
Q = CV = Capacitance x Voltage
Energy U = V²/2Q
Units → Q = C (coulomb), I = A(ampere), t = sec, W = joule, C(Capacitance)= F(Farad)
i). Coulomb law
Force ∝ Product of charge
F ∝ 1/distance ²
F = Kq1q2/r²
Vacuum K = 9 x 10⁹ Nm²/C²
ii). Kirchhoff's law
1st law → Current entering = Leaving the junction
Galvinometer
To detect current in electric circuit.
Electric Fuse
protective device based on heating effect
The fuse material → low melting point, high resistance
Pure fuse is made up of tin
fuse wire are made up of Tin & Lead
fuse wire are placed in Series with the device
fuse rating is on the basis of current
Electric wire
Electric wires are made up of copper
Electric wires are generally Coated/Covered by Polyvinyl chloride
Red/Yellow → Phase wire
Blue/black → Neutral wire
Green → Ground wire
Electric switches are used with LIve wire
Transformer
Low Voltage AC to high & vice versa.
Low Current AC to high & vice versa.
Based on electromagnetic induction
Use only for AC.
Electric bulb
Filament → tungsten
Tungsten → High Melting Point, High Resistivity.
Gas → Ar, N2
CFL (compact fluorescent electric) → has no filament
Electric Cell or Battery
Battery capacity → in Ampere hour
Capacity → Ampere-hour
Chemical → electrical energy
Helps to maintain potential
Shunt → wire of small resistance
Electric bell → works on the principle of magnetic effect of current.
Domestic Electric Circuits
Red insulation cover → live wire (or positive)
Black insulation → neutral wire (or negative)
Potential difference between the two is 220 V. (in india)
ELECTRONIC
Rectifier → Converts AC to DC
Amplifire →
Solar cell → a semiconductor Diode.
Semiconductor → Germanium & Silicon
Diode → Rectifying device
MOS → Metal oxide Semiconductor
The heating element in the electric heater is made up of Nichrome.
Transister
Amplifying device
PNP →
NPN →
Semiconducter
Eg. Silica(Si), Germanium(Ge), Cadium(Cd), Sulphide(S), Galium(Ga), Arsenide(As)
IC chips → Silica
P-type →
N-type →
Germenium → ika-silicon
MAGNETISM
When electric current passes through a wire it behave like a magnet
Strength of electromagnet can be changed
Ferromagnetic substance → iron cobalt nickel
Middle part has minimum magnetic power
Freely suspended → align in geographical N-S directⁿ
Magnetic axis → imaginary line joining 2 poles of magnet.
Like poles repel & unlike poles attract each other
Earth's magnetic field is due to Convection currents in Earth's core(flow of hot metal core)
Earth's magnetism is due to Dynamo effect
Magnetism = 0 (Centre of bar)
Compass
Needle is a Small bar magnet.
Pointing towards North → North Pole & South → South pole
Magnetic Field
Magnetic field has both direction and magnitude.
Field produced in coil of single turn = n(no. of turns)
The strength of the magnetic field is Stronger at the pole.
MF → IL^-1.
Field Lines
Directⁿ MF line → N to S pole.
inside the magnet → South pole to North pole.
Outside → N to S pole
Two field line never cross each other
Farady law
1st law →
2nd law →
Device based on farady law → metal detector(used at airport, bus station)
MF due to Current carrying conductor
i). By Straight Conductor
Right-Hand Thumb Rule
ii). By Circular loop
iii). By Solenoid
field is uniform inside the solenoid.A strong magnetic field produced inside a solenoid can be used to magnetise a piece of magnetic material, like soft iron, when placed inside the coil The magnet so formed is called an electromagnet
FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
Fleming's left hand rule
ELECTRIC MOTOR
Rotating device converts electrical energy → mechanical energy.
The commercial motors use (i) an electromagnet in place of permanent magnet; (ii) large number of turns of the conducting wire in the current-carrying coil; and (iii) a soft iron core on which the coil is wound. The soft iron core, on which the coil is wound, plus the coils, is called an armature. This enhances the power of the motor.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
by Faraday & Henry
current induced in a coil due to relative motion between a magnet field & the coil.
after ½ revolution direction of induced current changes
Electromagnet: current carrying coil containing a soft iron core, which is utilised in electric bell, telegraph receiver, telephone, transformer, dynamo, etc.
Fleming's right hand rule
Movement of conductor, magnetic field & induced current are perpendicular to each other
Electric Generator
Based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction
Gauss law
Any closed surface
RADIO ACTIVITY
The phenomenon of emission of α β, and γ Particles is called radioactivity.
Si unit = Becquerel
1 curie =
Radioactivity discovered by Henry Becquerel, Madame Curie and Pierre Curie for which they jointly won the Nobel Prize.
deals with emission of α, β, γ particles
ray emitted 1st recognise by Rutherford (α)
radioactive elements → α β, γ, Plutonium, Uranium, Thorium & Radium.
Pitchblende (Uraninite) → Uranium ore
Radium → from,
Atomic no → Uranium = 92,
Madam Curie
Two times nobel prize winner 1903 Physics(radioactivity) & 1911 Chemistry.
Madam curie & Robert pierre discovered radioactive element Radium
Emission of radioactive rays
end product is Lead
emission of α particles atomic number is decreased by 2 and mass number is decreased by 4.
emission of a β-particle, atomic number is increased by 1 and mass number does not change.
ATOMIC & NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Nuclear Fission
Heavy nucleus splits into two nuclei of nearly equal mass
first demonstrated by Hatin and Fritz Strassmann.
nuclear fission of uranium : energy = 200MeV
Atom bomb: based on nuclear fission, U²³⁵ & Pu²³⁹.
Nuclear Reactor or Atomic Pile: is an arrangement, in which controlled nuclear fission reaction takes place.
First nuclear reactor was established in Chicago University under the supervision of Prof Enrico Fermi.
Components of nuclear reactor
i. fissionable Fuel : U²³⁵ & U²³⁹
ii. moderator : heavy water, graphite and beryllium oxide are used to slow down the fast moving neutrons.
iii. control rods: Cadmium or boron rods are good absorbers of neutrons.
iv. Coolant: absorbs that heat and prevents excessive rise in the temperature, water, heavy water(D2O), Liquid Sodium a gas like He or CO2.
Nuclear Fusion
Two or more light nuclei combine together to form a heavier nucleus
Sun & Star's
Temp = 10⁸ K
Hydrogen bomb → 1000 times more powerful than Atom bomb.
Cathode Rays → Discovered by Sir William Crooke
Positive or Canal Rays → Discovered by Goldstein.
CT Scan → Computed Tomography
X-Rays
Discovered by Wilhwem Roentgen.
X-rays show photoelectric effect.
Uses of X-Rays
In Medical Sciences X-rays are used in surgery for the detection of fractures, diseased organs, foreign matter like bullets, stones, etc.
They are used in treatment of cancer and in skin diseases.
In Engineering → detecting faults, cracks, flaws and gas pockets in the finished metal products and in heavy metal sheets.
In Scientific Work → studying crystal structure and complex molecules.
In the Custom Department → for detection of banned materials kept hidden.
LASER
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
In India in 1964, the first laser as Gallium Arsenide (GaA) semiconductor laser was designed and fabricated by Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC).
SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS
Ammeter → current, connect in series, low resistance.
Aerometer : Specific gravity
Anemometer → power, velocity & Direction of wind.
Barometer : Patm
Beaufort scale : strength of Wind velocity.
Barometer → atmospheric pressure.
Cryometer : low temperature
Cyanometer : Blueness of sky & ocean
Chronometer : time
Clinometer : slope & elevations
Electroscope : to check presence of electric charge
Eudiometer : Volume of gases.
Ergometer : work performed
Echolocation → depth of water
Fathometer : depth of ocean.
Galvanometer : electric current, Directⁿ of current flow
Geiger counter : All type of radiation (alpha, beta & gamma)
Hydrometer → relative densities (G), density of liquids,
Hygrometer : humidity.
Hyetometer : measuring Rainfall.
Helioscope → to see the sun
Hydrophone : sound underwater
Lactometer → milk purity by measuring relative density, ρ of milk
Lucimeter : light intensity
mecano receptor : blood pressure detection
Manometer : air pressure
Odometer → distance travelled by vehicle.
Ohm meter → electrical resistance
Periscope → used in submarine to see things above the sea level
Polygraph : bp , heart beat , a lie detector
Pyrometer : very high Temp.
Photometer : Compare intensity of light (luminous intensity),
Potentiometer → electromotive force
Periscope : in submarines to view objects.
Pachymeter : small thickness
Radar : directⁿ & range of an aeroplane by means of radio waves
Sextant → Navigation 🧭
Sonar → detect obj inside water, it is a type of echolocation
Sphygmometer : blood pressure in Arteries
Stethoscope : hear & analyse heart & lungs sound.
Speedometer → speed of vehicle
Spectrometer : Wavelength
Seismographs : earthquake
Stalagmometer → surface tension
Spectroheliograph : photographing the sun
Tacheometer → R.P.M. of Flywheel.
Voltmeter → voltage
Venturi meter: rate of flow of liquids
Viscometer : Viscosity of liquid.
Galvanometer → to Voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series
Galvanometer → to check flow(direction) of Electricity.
Multimeter = Voltmeter + Current meter + Ohm-meter
Sudden fall in barometer reading → Strom
GPS → Global Positioning System
INVENTIONS
Aeroplane ✈️: Orville & wilbur wright (wright brothers)
Atomic Battery : Henry Moseley
Atomic Bomb → Auto haan & Openhiemer
Bifocal lens : Benjamin Franklin
Barometer : Evangelista Torricelli
Binocular : J.P.Lemiere
Bifocal lens → Benjamin Frenklin
Contact lens : Adolf Gaston Eugen fick.
Cyclotron : Ernest O. Lawrence
Clinical Thermometer → Thomas Clifford Allbutt
Dynamite : Alferd nobel
Electromagnet : William Sturgeon
Electric AC → Wilish Carreir
FM radio : Edwin Howard Armstrong
Fountain Pen → Levish e Waterman
LCD projector →
Mobile Phone → Martin Cooper
Microwave : Percy Spencer
Pendulum clock : Christian Huygens
Phonograph : Thomas Edison
Petrol Engine → Carl Benz
Pistol Revolver → Semaul Colt
Revolver : Samuel Colt
Rocket : Robert Goddard
Silai machine → Alias hove
Telephone → Alexander Graham Bell
Thermoscope → gallilio gallili
UV Spectrometer → GMB Dobson
Video game console : Ralph H. Baer
DISCOVERIES
Theory of Relativity → Albert Einstein
Ultra short radio wave → J.C.bose
Photoelectric effect → HR Hertz
Neutron → James Chadwick
NOBEL PRIZE
Superconductivity → Heike kamerlingh onnes (1913)
Energy quanta → max karl Ernst ludwig planck(1918)
EEG → ElectroEncephaloGram
Thrust is the force that moves an aircraft through the air
Electrical energy generated from mass m
E= mc²
c = 3 x 10⁸m/s & m → kg , E → joule
1kwh = 3.6 x 10⁶ joule & vice versa karlena.
(1eV = 1.602 x 10⁻¹⁹ joule)
CHEMISTRY
MATTERS
Anything which occupies space and has mass is called matter.
matter is made up of very small particles.
their is enough space b/w particles
particle of matter are in continuous movement & increase with temperature
particles of matter attract each other
KE , Speed, & Diffusion rate↑es → if Temp↑es
Diffusion → intermixing of particles of diff matter on their own.
Diffusion ∝ 1/ force of attraction
State of matters = 5
i). Solid
fix shape & volume
max force of attraction b/w molecule
configured in systematic manner
Incompressible, Hard & Rigid
e.g.Camphor,
all metals are solid except mercury which is liquid.
On melting solid its temperature remains the same.
ii). Liquid :
fix vol. but not fix shape & incompressible
mercury is the best conductor of heat among liquids.
iii). Gas
neither fixed shape nor fixed volume
highly compressible than solid & liquid
diffusion occur in extreme intensity
e.g. Ammonia,
Force of attraction → Solid > liquid > Gases.
intermolecular space → Solid < liquid < gas
intermolecular force → Solid > liquid > gas
iv). Plasma
consists of super energetic and super excited particles in the form of ionised gases.
e.g.the fluorescent tube and neon sign bulbs
the Sun, stars & CFL tubes glow because of the presence of plasma in them
v). Bose-Einstein Condensate(BEC)
A gas at super low temperature with extremely low density.
Satendra Bose,
Physical change
Change in state solid, liquid or gas.
ice to water & vice versa.
Glowing platinum wire.
Chemical change (Chemical reactⁿ)
New substances formed, affect the composition & Chemical properties of matter.
Fermentation → Sugar → Alcohol
Neutralisation → Acid + base → salt.
Oxidatⁿ/Rusting of iron, Souring of butter, Curd from milk, Burning of wood, digestion, respiration, Rotting of bananas, metabolism of food in body, cooking an egg.
Change in state (Phase Transition)
[FS, VC , SD]
Latent heat
energy absorbed or released during a Phase change of substance.
e.g. ,Latent heat of fusion : heat energy required to change 1 kg of solid into liquid at Patm at its MP
Pressure & temperature determine the state of matter
CO2 is stored under high temperatures.
i). Melting point
Solid to liquid at Patm
ice = 0°C & NaCl = 800°C, mix of ice & salt = -15°C
MP ↓es in presence of impurities.
ii). Boiling point
liquid to gas at Patm
Water = 100°C, Ethanol = 78.3°C, Chloroform = 62°C, Acetone = 46°C
BP ∝ Patm.
BP ∝ 1/vapour pressure
BP ∝ soluble impurities → BP Sea > Pure water.
BP ↓es at high altitudes.
iii). Freezing point
liquid to solid
water = 0°C
iv). Evaporation
liquid to vapour below its boiling point due to high KE of particles.
E is a surface phenomenon
E ∝ Surface area
E ∝ Temperature
E ∝ 1/Humidity
E ∝ Wind speed
v). Vapour Pressure
P exerted by the vapours of liquid in equilibrium
Pv ∝ 1/ intermolecular forces
Pv ∝ Temperature 🌡️
Elements
Elements contain only one type of atom.
basic forms of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical reactions & physical methods.
e.g Hydrogen, helium, lithium,oxygen.
Classified into metal, non metal & metalloids.
Compound
composed of two or more elements in fixed proportion.
elements react to form new compounds
new substance has totally diff properties
Constitute can be separated only by chemical or electrochemical reaction
e.g. water(H2O),CH4,Sugar, Salt
i). Organic compound
obtain from living source
carbohydrates, protein,oils, fats.etc
ii). inorganic compound
from non-living sources
common salt, Marble, washing soda .etc
Mixture
two or more substances in indefinite proportion.
air is mix of elements & compounds
No new compound is formed
variable compositions
shows properties of constituent substance
constituents can be separated easily by physical method.
e.g. wind, Alloy, milk, wood, paint, petrol
i). Homogeneous mix
uniform composition throughout.
no visible boundary of separation
Air, Sugar or Salt in water,alloy, Benzene in toluene
ii). Heterogeneous mix
non uniform composition
visible boundary of separation
Milk, Sugar & Salt
Solution
A solution is a homogeneous mixture
Particle (d <1 nm or 10⁻⁹ m ) can't seen by naked eye
can't scatter a beam of light
Solute particles can't separate by filtration & can't settle for Stable solution.
Solvent :dissolves the other component (is in larger amount)
water is a universal Solvent due to High Dielectric Constant.
Solute :dissolved in the solvent (is in lesser amount)
‘tincture of iodine’ is iodine in alcohol
immiscible → do not able to form Solutⁿ
Liquid solution →
Solid solitⁿ → Alloy
Amalgam → soltⁿ of mercury with other metals
Gaseous solutions : air
Conductor : vinegar, salt solⁿ,
Isotonic solⁿ → equal osmotic pressure
True Solution → NaCl in water
Buffer solⁿ →weak acid + conjugate base salt or weak base + conjugate acid salt.
Concentration of solⁿ = mass of solute / solution.
Solubility = (mass of solute / mass of solvent) x 100
Raoult's law
the vapour pressure of a solvent above a solution is equal to the vapour pressure of the pure solvent at the same temperature multiply by the mole fraction of the solvent present
SUSPENSION
a heterogeneous mixture
solute particles do not dissolve but remain suspended
Particles of a suspension are visible to the naked eye.
scatter a beam of light passing through it & make its path visible.
The solute particles settle down when a suspension is left undisturbed, that is,a suspension is unstable.
can be separated from the mixture by the process of filtration
COLLOIDAL SOLUTION
A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture.
particles can't be seen by naked eyes.
Colloids are big enough to scatter a beam of light passing through it and make its path visible.
They do not settle down when left undisturbed(quite stable)
cannot be separated from the mixture by the process of filtration
e.g.
zig-zag motion of a colloid particle is called Brownian motion or movement.
Centrifugation used to separate the colloids.
SEPARATION OF MIXTURES
The components of a heterogeneous mixture can be separated by
Simple methods
Hand picking , sieving & Winnowing
Special techniques
i). Sublimation (cina)
Solid into vapour
Naphthalene,Camphor, iodine,Ammonium chloride to salt .
ii). Filtration
Removal of suspended solid or turbid water
iii). Evaporation
liquid into vapour
preparation of common salt, Sugar from water.
iv). Crystallisation
separation & purification of solid substance
impure solid or mixture is heated with suitable solvent (eg. Alcohol, water , acetone, chloroform)
for complex mixture use fractional crystallisation
v). Distillation
liquid into vapour & then vapour into liquid
Distillation = Vapourisation + condensation
Separating components of Petroleum, Desalination of seawater
fractional distillation: fractionating column is used, refining of petroleum.
vi). Centrifugation
Butter from curd, Fine mud particles suspended in water.
vii). Decantation (Using separating funnel) : Oil from water.
viii). Chromatography: Different pigments from an extract of flower petals.
ix). Magnetic separation: Iron pins from sand.
Reverse Osmosis: water purification,
Desalination: mineral material separated from Saline water
Electrolysis: hydrogen & oxygen from water
Separating funnels: oil & water.
ATOMS AND MOLECULES
Laws of Chemical Combination
Experiments by Lavoisier and Joseph L. Proust.
i). Law of conservation of mass
mass cannot be produced or destroyed in chemical reactⁿ
ii). Law of constant proportion or ratio
By Joseph L. Proust
“In a chemical substance the elements are always present in definite proportions by mass”.
in water mass ratio H : O = 1:8
Dalton's Atomic theory
Had been given by John Dalton
Dalton give theory of "Nature of matter"
All matter, whether an element, a compound or a mixture is composed of small particles called atom
Based on law of Chemical Combination
Provided an explanation for the law of conservation of mass and the law of definite proportions.
Atom is inseparable
Postulate of Dalton theory
(i) All matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms, which participate in chemical reactions.
(ii) Atoms are indivisible particles, which cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction (Conservation of mass)
(iii) Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and chemical properties.
(iv) Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties.
(v) Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds & it is called the law of multiple proportions.
(vi) The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.
Atom
The word atom → by Democritus.
Smallest particle of an element
Doesn't occur in a free nature or independent state.
Hydrogen is the smallest & lightest Atom
Oganesson, with symbol Og and atomic number 118 is a recent element synthesised.
Symbols Of Atoms
Dalton was the first scientist to use the symbols for elements
Berzilius → Suggested that the symbols of elements be made from one or two letters of the name of the element.
Now-a-days, IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) is an international scientific organisation which approves names of elements, symbols and units.
1st letter → Capital(Uppercase) & 2nd → Small letter (lower case)
Eg. (i) Hydrogen, H, (ii) Aluminium, Al and not AL
Molecule
Mole word introduced by Wilhelm Ostwald (1896)
Smallest particle of an element or substance or compound which remain in independent state
A group of two or more atoms that are chemically bonded together.
E.g. O2,H2,N2,
i). Molecules Of Elements
Constituted by the same type of atoms.
ii). Molecules Of Compounds
Atoms of different elements in definite proportions e.g.H2O,NH3.
H2O → H : O = 1: 8 (Mass ratio)
NH3 → N : H = 14 : 3
CO2 → C : O = 3 : 8
CaO → Ca : O = 40 : 16 = 5 : 2
Atomicity
No of atoms present in the molecule of an element
Monoatomic → He, Ar ← Atmocity = 1
Diatomic → O2, H2, N2, Cl2 ← Atmocity = 2
Tetra-atomic → Phosphorus ← Atomicity = 4
Poly-atomic → Sulphur ← Atomicity > 1.
IONIC COMPOUNDS
Compounds composed of metals and non-metals contain charged species. The charged species are known as ions.
May consist of a single charged atom or a group of atoms
ionic compound have high MP & BP
Electrostatic force
Anion = Negatively charged ion
Cation = +vly charged , ammonium ion(NH4+),
E.g. NaCl → Na+ve & Cl-ve
Oxidation state of an atom displays Actual charge of the compound.
Large atoms have very weak bonds.
Chemical Formulae
Chemical formula of a compound is a symbolic representation of its composition
Valency → Combining power (or capacity) of an element
1.the valencies or charges on the ion must balance.
2.compound consists of a metal and a nonmetal, the name or symbol of the metal is written first. For example: calcium oxide (CaO), sodium chloride (NaCl), iron sulphide (FeS), copper oxide (CuO) etc.,
3.compounds formed with polyatomic ions, Mg (OH)2
Binary compounds
simplest compounds, which are made up of two different elements
hydrogen chloride = HCl
hydrogen sulphide = H2S
carbon tetrachloride = CCl4
magnesium chloride = MgCl2
Aluminium oxide = Al2O3
Calcium oxide = CaO
Sodium nitrate = NaNO3
Calcium hydroxide = Ca(OH)2
Sodium Carbonate = Na2CO3
ammonium sulphate = (NH4)2SO4
Atomic Number and Mass Number
Relative atomic mass → average mass of the atom, as compared to 1/12th the mass of one carbon-12 atom
One atomic mass unit is a mass unit equal to exactly one-twelfth (1/12th) the mass of one atom of carbon-12.
1amu(unit of atomic mass) = 1.6 x 10⁻²⁷Kg
Atomic no = Z = Protons.
Atomic mass number = A = p + n = proton + neutron
%of atom A = mass of all A / Total mass
Nucleons = protons + neutrons
No of protons = no of electrons
Hydrogen Atom → Nucleus has only Proton No Neutron
Mass → He = 4, Ca = 40, O = 16, S = 32,
Molecular Mass
The sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of the substance
Eg. H2O = 18 u, HNO3 = 63 u, SO2 = 64, CaO = 56, CO = 28, CO2 = 44, CH4 = 16, C6H12O6 = 180, H2SO4 = 98, CaCl2 = 111, NaCl = 58.54,
Formula unit mass
A sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula unit of a compound
Use for those substances whose constituent particles are ions
Eg. NaCl = 58.5 u & CaCl2 = 111 u
1 amu = 1.66×10^−24 g = 1.66 x 10^-27 kg
Mole Concept
Mole → SI unit of amount of substance.
1 mole of anything = 6.022 × 10²³ in number
Avogadro Constant or Number (No) = 6.023 x 10²³
1 mole = avogadro no of molecules
The word “mole” was introduced around 1896 by Wilhelm Ostwald
Number of moles = Given mass/Molar mass = number of particles/Avogadro number
The number of atoms or molecules = (Given mass/molar mass )x(Avogadro number)
Mass = Molar mass / Avogadro no.
1 mole of carbon atoms = 12g of C atoms = 6.022x10²³ atoms of C.
i). Isotope
Same Atomic no.(Proton) but diff Mass(Neutron)
Chemical properties are Similar
Physical properties are Different.
Eg. isotope of hydrogen → Protium(1,0) , Deuterium (D)(1,1), Tritium (T)(1,2)
ii). Isobar
Same mass & Diff Atomic no.
eg; Calcium & Argon.
iii). Isoelectronic → Same no of Electrons
iv). isotones → Same no. of neutrons
Doubly positively charged Helium particle is called Alpha (α) particle
Isotope uses
Uranium → Nuclear fuel
Cobalt-60 → Cancer treatment
Iodine → Goitre
iodine 131 → Thyroid cancer
Radium → Cancer treatment
Strontium-89 → Metastatic bone cancer treatment
Phosphorus -32 → Leukaemia treatment
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
an atom is divisible and consists of charged particles.
Constituents of an Atom
ईटपरनाचे
i). Electron
Discovered by J.J. thomson,
1e = 1.6x10⁻¹⁹C (-ve charge)
An electron was obtained from Cathode rays experiments
ii). Proton
Discovered by Goldstein
Named by Rutherford
E. Goldstein in 1886 discovered the presence of new radiations in a gas discharge and called them canal rays.
mass p = 2000 x e = mass of neutron.
1p = 1.6x10⁻¹⁹C (+ve charge)
An Proton was obtained from Anode rays experiments
The Rutherford α experiment was responsible for the discovery of Proton.
iii). Neutron
Discovered by James Chadwick
Neutron have zero charge
Neutrons are present in the nucleus of all atoms, except Hydrogen.
An Neutron was obtained from Radioactivity phenomenon
Neutron mass = 1.675 x 10⁻²⁷ Kg
Nucleus → Neutron & Proton
Nucleons = Proton + neutron
Positron = Antiparticle of electron
Antiparticle → Subatomic particles having opposite properties from normal Subatomic particles.
i). Thomson model
JJ thomson was 1st to use a cathode rays
Plum pudding model or water-melon model of an atom
Atom treated as sphere of radii = 10 ⁻⁸ cm
(i) An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded in it.
(ii) The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a whole is electrically neutral.
ii). Rutherford model
E.Rutherford is "father of nuclear physics”
Model was similar to Solar system
1st Nuclear Atomic model on the basis of scattering experiment
fast moving alpha (α)-particles were made to fall on a thin gold foil.
α-particles are doubly-charged helium ions(mass = 4 u)
nucleons = Proton + neutrons
α-scattering on Gold foil → Discovery of Nucleus then Proton
Observations of α-particle scattering experiment
Most of the fast moving α-particles passed straight through the gold foil.
Some of the α-particles were deflected by the foil by small angles.
Surprisingly one out of every 12000 particles appeared to rebound.
Conclusion of α-particle scattering experiment
Most of the space inside the atom is empty because most of the α-particles passed through the gold foil without getting deflected.
Very few particles were deflected from their path, indicating that the positive charge of the atom occupies very little space.
a very small fraction of α-particles were deflected by 1800 ,indicating that all the positive charge and mass of the gold atom were concentrated in a very small volume within the atom.
Radius of the atom = 10⁵ x radius of the nucleus
Nuclear model of an atom features
There is a positively charged centre in an atom called the nucleus. Nearly all the mass of an atom resides in the nucleus.
The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths.
The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model
Does Not Describe Stability of Atoms.
The revolution of the electron in a circular orbit is not expected to be stable. Any particle in circular orbit would undergo acceleration.During acceleration, charged particles would radiate energy. Thus, the revolving electron would lose energy and finally fall into the nucleus. If this were so, the atom should be highly unstable and hence matter would not exist in the form that we know. We know that atoms are quite stable.
iii). Bohr’s Model of Atom
Only certain special orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons, are allowed inside the atom.These orbits or shells are called energy levels.
Energy is discrete.
While revolving in discrete orbits the electrons do not radiate energy.
Electrons Distributed in Different Orbits (Shells)
The maximum number of electrons present in a shell = 2n² (K,L,M,N → 2,8,18,32)
The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the outermost orbit = 8.
The shells are filled in a stepwise manner. i.e. KLMN
Valency
Electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom
The combining capacity of the atoms of elements, that is,tendency to react and form molecules with atoms of the same or different elements
Bivalent (v = 2) →
Trivalent elements(valency = 03) → Boron, Aluminium, indium
Tetravalent (v = 4) →
Semiconductor = 4
Positive elements valency = 1,2,3
Valency = Valence electron or electron in outermost shell (if ≤4)
V = 8 - Valence electron or electron in outermost shell (if >4).
Transition elements have variable Valency.
Plank's quantum theory of Radiation
Radiant energy is emitted or absorbed in the form of small energy packets called Quanta
in case of light energy packet is known as Photons
E ∝ frequency of Radiation
E = hc/λ
Planck constant (h) = 6.625 × 10⁻³⁴ Js
Zeeman's effect
Spectral line obtained from Atomic spectra Splitted into fine line when placed in Magnetic Field
Stark's effect
Spectral line obtained from Atomic spectra Splitted into fine line when placed in Electric Field
Quantum Number
Set of four integers to define an electron completely in an atom
i). principal qn(n)
Shape size & energy of electrons
K,L,M,N.. (or 1,2,3,4..)
ii). Azimuthal qn(l)
shape of electron cloud & number of subshell in a shell
s,p,d,f..(0,1,2,3..)
l = 0 to n-1.
s (sharp) : spherical
p(Principle) : Dumbbell
d(Diffused) : double dumbbell
f(fundamental) : 8-lobed dumbbell
iii). Magnetic qn(m)
orientation of subshell
m = 2l + 1
iv). Spin qn(s)
direction of electron spin around its own axis.
Clockwise S = +½ & anticlockwise S = -½.
Pauli's Exclusion principle
all four quantum no. for two electrons in an atom Can not be identical
Hund's rule
filling of electrons 1st takes place singly after than pairing of electron take place
Aufbau principle
electrons filled in orbitals in order of their increasing energy, lower filled 1st.
1s<2s<2p<3p<4s<3d<4p<5s<4d<5p<6s<4f<5d<6p<7s…
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
At present, 118 elements are known to us, 94 are naturally occurring.
Mendeleev → father of periodic table
Genesis of PT
i). Lavoisier
into metals & non metals
ii). Dobereiner's Triads
By johann Wolfgang Dobereiner
Atomic mass of 2nd or Middle element = Avg of 1st & 3rd
lithium (Li), Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K) atomic masses 7, 23.0 and 39.0.
Dobereiner 1st observes Pt as a catalyst.
(Ca 40.1,Sr 87.6,Ba 137.3), (Cl 35. 5,Br 79.9,I 126.9), (Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony)
iii). Newland' law of octaves
By Alexander Newlands in 1864.
Every 8th element has properties similar to 1st.
Arranged in ↑esing order of atomic masses
56th element Hydrogen to Thorium ← Last elements
Applicable only up to Calcium
Assumed only 56 elements existed in nature & no more elements would be discovered in the future
In order to fit elements into his Table, Newlands adjusted two elements in the same slot, also put some unlike elements
Cobalt & nickel in properties are kept in Halogen family & far away from iron (Fe)
Newlands’ Law of Octaves worked well with lighter elements only.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
iv). Mendeleev's Periodic Law
By Dmitry mendeleev in 1869
Published in germany patrika → 1872
Leads to discovery of new element
Physical & Chemical properties of the elements are periodic fⁿ of their atomic masses
1st to make PT of elements
↑esing atomic mass.
63 elements were known.
Period → Horizontal rows → 7
Group → Vertical column → 9
Atomic no 101 mendelevium in honour of mendeleev's.
Ga(Gallium), Sc(scandium), Ge(germanium) Found a place later in PT.
Ga replaced eca-aluminium.
Hydrogen does not find a definite place
B/w Chemical properties mendeleev focused on compound made up of Hydrogen & oxygen
Inspire to discover new elements
Defects mpt
no fixed position can be given to hydrogen in the Periodic Table
atomic masses do not increase in a regular manner in going from one element to the next
isotopes of all elements posed a challenge to Mendeleev’s Periodic Law.
Co placed before nickel
v). Moseley’s modern Periodic law
By Henry moseley in 1913.
Physical & Chemical properties of the elements are periodic fⁿ of their atomic number
Atomic no. is more fundamental than its atomic mass.
Li(lithium) → 1st metallic Atom
H(Hydrogen) → 1st Non-metallic Atom
Period = 7 ← Horizontal rows
Group = 18 ← Vertical columns → Outer shell electrons are equal
H Can be Placed at 1st or 17th Group → Both Alkali & Halogen behaviour.
Zigzag Line → Seprates Metals From Non Metals.
Try to learn at least 1st 30 Elements Atomic no & mass
Trends in the Modern Periodic Table
Group → Same Chemical characteristics, Same Valency,
Periods →
i). Valency
Group → Same number of valence electrons.
Period → Same no of occupied shells.
The number of shells increases as we go down the group.
ii). Atomic size or atomic radii
Left to right → ↓es
Top to bottom → ↑es
The atomic radius of hydrogen atom is 37 pm (picometre, 1 pm = 10 ⁻ ¹²m
Van der waal radii > metallic radii > covalent radii.
iii). ionic radii
Left to right → ↓es
Top to bottom → ↑es
iv). Electronegativity
To attract electrons
Left to right → ↑es
Top to bottom → ↓es
Fluorine is the most Electronegative element
v). ionisation potential or ionisation energy
Amount of energy required to remove an electron from isolated gaseous atom is IP
Left to right → ↑es
Top to bottom → ↓es
vi). Electron affinity
Energy released during addition of an extra electron in an isolated gaseous Atom is EI.
Left to right → ↑es
Top to bottom → ↓es
vii). Metallic and Non-metallic Properties
Metals → Left-hand side
Non-metals → Right-hand side
Metallic character → Left to right → ↓es & Top to bottom → ↑es
Tendency to lose electrons will decrease Down the group
Borderline elements or metalloids or semimetals → Boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium and polonium
The oxides of metals are basic and that of non-metals are acidic in general
Periods in PT
Periods have 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32 and 32 elements (2n²)
1st → Only 2 gases
2nd Period → Max Non metals
2nd, 3rd → 8, 8 Elements
Period 4 & 5 → Have two metalloids, Total 18, 18 elements
6th Period → 32 elements (Lanthanide)
1, 7th Periods → No Metalloids (Actinide)
7th Period → incomplete with 32 Elements
Groups in PT.
Group have same valency or no of electrons in outermost shell
i). s-block (1 - 2)
G-1 → Alkali matter
Hydrogen is only Non metal placed with Alkali metals.
Outermost orbit = 1 electron, Valency =
Highly reactive
Sodium is always kept in kerosene
Atomic wt.↑es : MP↓es
G-2 → Alkaline Earth matter
है लीना कर रब से फ्रेंडशिप.
Except Beryllium all G-2 are Alkaline
iii). d-block (3-12) or Transition Elements
iv). f-block or inner transition elements
Actinoids → 89 - 103 → Eg. California
Lanthanide → 57 - 70
Lenthem = 57, Serum = 58, Actinium = 89, Thorium = 90,
Rare earth elements found in d & f block
ii). p-block(13-18)
G-13 → The Boron family
G-14 → The Carbon family
G-17 → Halogen
All Non Metals
Two outermost shells are incomplete
Used as catalyst
Outermost cell → 7 electrons
Oxidising power → F > Cl > Br > I.
F, Cl → Gases, Br → Liquid & I → Crystal solid.
Fluorine (9) → Most Reactive
Chlorine (17) →
Bromine (35) → Liquid state at room temperature
iodine (53) → in colour industry, Lustrous Non-metal
Fereon (Chlorofluorocarbon) used in refrigerator
Teflon (Polytetrafluoroethylene) use in non-stick utensils
G 18 or Noble gas or inert gases or Rare gases or Zero Group
Group 18 or VIII A.
All Gas.
Also Called Group Zero.
Chemically inactive or Least reactive elements
Colourless, Odourless, Gases.
Ek Pramanuk
Exhibit Diamagnetism
Valency = 0
Outermost shell is full = 8 Electrons, Helium = 2 Electrons
Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon(54) & Radon
Helium → light & Non-inflammable so used in balloon, weather indicators
Neon → used in Discharge tube to glow light
Argon → used in Arc welding & electric bulb
Except Rn all inert gases are present in atmosphere
Xenon → Ajnabi/Anokha gas
CHEMICAL BONDING
Chemical Bond force that holds together diff atoms in a molecule
Bigger Atom → Very Weak bond
i). ionic or electrovalent bond
By complete transfer of one or more electrons
Highly Exothermic
Eg. formation of NaCl
Condition → ionise energy of metal should be low & Electron affinity of non metal should be high
Properties of ionic compounds
High MP & BP
Good conductor of electricity in molten State or in water
Bad conductor of electricity in solid state
Soluble in water
insoluble in non-polar solvent like Benzene, Carbon tetraChloride
ii). Covalent Bond
By mutual contribution & sharing of electron b/w two same or different atoms
Term CB given by irving langmuir.
eg. H2, Cl2,
Lone pair of electrons
Pair of electron which do not take part on C bond
in NH3 lp = 1pair & H2O lp = 2 pairs.
Properties of covalent compounds
high MP & BP
bad electricity conductor except Graphite
insoluble in water
soluble in organic solvents (Benzene, acetone, Chloroform)
CBond are directional
Types of CB
Co-ordinate or Dative Bond
Special type of covalent bond in which one atom donates electron to other atom
Denoted by (→)
e.g. Sodium cyanide (NaCN), SO2
Sigma bond (σ-bond)
By linear overlapping of atomic orbitals
e.g. H2(1 σ)
Pi-bond (π-bond)
By sidewise or lateral overlapping of atomic orbitals
it is a weak bond
e.g. O2(1π, 1 σ), N2( 2π, 1 σ)
Benzen → σ = 12, π = 3.
iii). Hybridisation
mixing of two or more atomic orbitals of equivalent energy to form new hybrid orbits.
sp, sp², sp³, sp³d, sp³d², sp³d³.
Bond energy
Energy required to break one mole of bond in gaseous state
BE ∝ 1 / size of atom
BE ∝ Multiplicity of bond
BE → Triple > double > single bond
Bond length
Avg equilibrium distance b/w centre of two bonded atom
BL ∝ size of atom
BL ∝ 1/multiplicity of bond
BL → Triple < double < single bond
to remember BL ∝ 1/BE
vi). Hydrogen Bond
Represented by (……)
Attractive weak force that binds Hydrogen atoms with other electronegative atoms (F,O,N) of another molecule, also there is covalent bond.
e.g. (HF)n, (H2O)n
H2O is liquid due to Hbond , & H2S doesn't for Hbond so it is a Gas.
intermolecular H bond
Hydrogen bonding occur b/w two or more molecule
compound become soluble in water
MP & BP ↑es due to molecular association
...H–F......H–F......H–F…
e.g. b/w Water & Alcohol (CH3–O–H...O=H2)
intramolecular H bond
Hydrogen bonding occurs within a molecule.
MP & BP ↓es due to cyclisation.
Bond strength → Triple > double > single > Hydrogen bond
CHEMICAL REACTIONS & EQUATION
Nitrogen is an Unreactive Gas.
Chemical reaction has taken place
Change in state, temperature & colour.
Evolution of a gas
Catalyst
Increases the rate of a reaction without itself being consumed
manganese dioxide(MnO2): thermal decomposition of potassium chlorate(KClO3)
Autocatalyst - Products act as a catalyst.
Chemical Equations
Reactants → Products
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide (Mg + O2 → MgO)
Mg + 2H2O → Mg(OH)2 + H2
Atoms No. → Reactants = Product.
Physical states are (g), (l), (aq) and (s).
(aq) means solution in water
Reaction conditions, such as temperature, pressure,catalyst, etc., for the reaction are indicated above and/or below the arrow in the equation
Types Of Chemical Reactions
i). Combination Reaction
A + B + C → D + heat (single product is formed)
CaO(s)(Quick lime) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)(Slaked lime or calcium hydroxide) + Heat
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + heat (burning of coal)
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O (g)(burning of natural gas)
2Cu + O2 → 2CuO
ii). Decomposition Reaction
C + Heat → A + B
Single reactant breaks down to give simpler products
When a decomposition reaction is carried out by heating, it is called thermal decomposition
2FeSO4(s)(Ferrous sulphate) + Heat →(ferric oxide) Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)
CaCO3(s)(limestone) + Heat → CaO(s)(quick lime)+ CO2(g)
Reactions used in black and white photography.
2AgCl(s)(silver chloride) + Sunlight → 2Ag(s) + Cl2(g)
2AgBr(s)(Silver bromide) + Sunlight → 2Ag(s) + Br2(g)
iii). Displacement Reaction
More Reactive element displaces another element from its compound
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Pb(s) + CuCl2(aq) → PbCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
iv). Double Displacement Reaction
Two different atoms or groups of atoms (ions) are exchanged
AB + CD → AD + CB
Na2SO4(Sodium sulphate) + BaCl2(Barium chloride) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Precipitate → insoluble substance formed
Any reaction that produces a precipitate can be called a precipitation reaction.
Precipitation reactions produce insoluble salts.
v). Oxidation
Loss of electrons
Addition of oxygen or electronegative elements
Removal of hydrogen or electropositive elements
H2S + Cl2 → 2HCl + S
2Cu + O2 + Heat→ 2CuO (Copper powder becomes coated with black copper(II) oxide)
Oxidising agents like bleaching powder are good for purification of water
Oxidising agents
Substance which undergoes reduction(H2S)
Eg. O2, O3, H2O2, KMnO4, K2Cr2O7.etc
Also used to purify water.
vi). Reduction
Gain of electrons
Removal of oxygen or electronegative elements
Addition of hydrogen or electropositive elements
H2O + C → CO + H2
Reducing agents
Which undergoes oxidation(H20)
Zinc, coke, sodium, hydrogen, CO, C,
Oxidation-Reduction or Redox reactions
One reactant gets oxidised while the other gets reduced
MnO3 + 4HCl → MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2
Other Reactions
Sodium + Alcohols → ….. + H2(Hydrogen gas)
i). Combustion
produce Heat & light
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO + heat + light
ii). Neutralisation
Reactⁿ b/w Acid & base
Acid + Base → salt + water + heat
HCL + NaOH → NaCL + H2O
iii). Decomposition
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
iv). Exothermic
Energy is released
reactant → product + energy(heat)
Combustion, Neutralization, Thermite reactⁿ.
Respiration is an exothermic process
C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(aq) → 6CO2(aq) + 6H2O(l) + energy
Decomposition of vegetable matter
v). Endothermic
energy is absorbed
reactant + energy (heat, light or electricity )→ product
cooling effect, melting, evaporation, sublimation, thermal decomposition, Hydrolysis, photosynthesis.
vi). Precipitation
Takes place in an aqueous solution
Two ions bond together to form an insoluble salt(Precipitate)
AgNO3 + KCl → AgCl + KNO3
Effects Of Oxidation Reactions
i). Corrosion
Rusting of iron is due to both oxidation & reduction.
Rust → Fe2O3
The black coating on silver
The green coating on copper
Corrosion causes damage to car bodies, bridges, iron railings, ships and to all objects made of metals, specially those of iron.
ii). Rancidity
When fats and oils are oxidized, they become rancid and their smell and taste change.
Keeping food in air tight containers helps to slow down oxidation
usually flush bags of chips with gas such as nitrogen to prevent the chips from getting oxidized
OXIDATION NO
no. of electrons that an atom gains or loss to form chemical bond
the charge present on atom in a molecule or ion
it may be -ve, 0, +ve
most electronegative Fluorine = -1 in all Compounds
Monoatomic ion = charge, eg. Ca2+ = +2, Al3+ = +3
alkaline earth metals = +2 (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba)
Alkali metals = +1 (Li, Na, Kr , Rb, Cs)
Atoms in free state = 0.
H = O3 = O2 = CO2 = 0
in a molecule ∑ON = 0
in an ion ∑ON = magnitude of charge with sign.
oxygen with Fluorine = +2 always
hydrogen ion = +1, hydride ion = -1
Oxygen → oxide = -2, peroxide = -1, superoxide = -½
Anion
Negatively charged ion formed by Gain of electrons
Cl + e →Cl⁻, O + 2e →O²⁻
Cation
+vly charged ion formed by loss of electrons, ammonium ion(NH4+),
e.g. NaCl→Na+ve & Cl-ve
ELECTROLYSIS & ELECTRO CHEMICAL SERIES
Cathode of dry cell → Carbon
i). Anodising
electrochemical process converts metal surface into a decorative , durable, corrosion-resistant, high quality surface finish
Acid used : dilute sulphuric acid or oxalic acid
ii). Electroplating
depositing or coating a layer of metal on another by means of electricity
metal used → Gold,zinc,copper, chromium,tin,nickel,silver.
for iron = zinc
Galvanization → Applying protecting Zinc coating to steel or iron to prevent rusting
iii). Electrolysis or electrical decomposition
producing chemical decomposition of a compound by passing electricity through the compound.
aluminium is extracted only by electrical decomposition.
Na, Al, mg, Ca by electrolysis
Dose
incomplete burning of coal Release Carbon monoxide
ACIDS, BASES & SALTS
INDICATORS
i). Natural indicators
litmus, turmeric, Hibiscus flowers.
litmus soltⁿ is derived from lichen
litmus solⁿ → Violet colour if it is neither acidic nor Alkaline.
inactive litmus solⁿ = Purple colour
Dry HCL gas doesn't change the colour of litmus.
ii). Synthetic indicators
methyl orange & phenolphthalein
methyl orange is Red in acidic & Yellow pink in Alkaline medium.
Phenolphthalein is pink in Alkali (Base)
iii). Olfactory indicators
Odour changes in acidic or basic medium
E.g. Vanilla, onion and clove.
Acid-base indicators are dyes or mixtures of dyes
Universal indicator are used to differentiate b/w weak & strong acids
Eosin is used to study tissue & Can't used to differentiate Acidic & neutral solⁿ
ACID
Acids are sour in taste and change the colour of
Blue litmus to Red.
Methyl orange → Orange to Pink
Phenolphthalein → remains colourless
Gastric acid → Potassium Chloride, HCL, Sodium Chloride
Hydrogen is common element for Acids
Aqueous solⁿ of copper sulphate(CuSO4) is Acidic.
Royal Acid or Aqua-Regia → HN03 : HCl = 1:3
Sulphurous acid (H2SO3) ← Sulphur dioxide dissolves in water
i). Oxyacids
Consist of Hydrogen as well as Oxygen
H2SO4, HNO3, H3PO4 (Phosphoric acid)...
ii). Hydra acids
Only Hydrogen
HCl, HBr(Hydrobromic), HCN(Hydrogen cyanide)
iii). Acidic oxide
Non metal oxide reacts with water to form Acid.
Non-metallic oxide are acidic in nature
e.g. SO2, SO3, NO2 ,P2O5.
Naturally occurring acids
Citric acid → Lemons or oranges (Citrus fruits), Lime has highest amount of citric acid
Lactic acid → Sour milk(Curd) →
Tartaric acid → Grapes, Tamarind,
Acetic acid/Ethanoic acid → Vinegar, fruit juice
Oxalic acid → Tomato, Spinach, Wood sorrel, photography to remove ink
Oxalic acid is used to remove rust spot
Methanoic acid → Ant sting, Nettle sting
Maleic acid → Apple 🍎
Stearic acid → Fats
Butyric acid → Rancid butter
Carbonic acid → Soda water aerated drinks, Soft drink
Formic acid → Red ants, bee
Uric acid → Urine of mammals
Benzoic acid → Grass, leaf, urine & medicine mfd.
Strong Acid
Strong Acid solⁿ mostly contains ions.
React very rapidly
All mineral acids are strong acids
Completely ionised in water & gives more H+ ions
e.g. H2SO4, HCl, HNO3.
i). Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)
King of chemistry or oil of vitriol.
Lead storage battery, car battery
Used to Remove sulphur & other Compounds in petroleum refining.
Dehydrating agent to convert ethanol into ethane.
Container to store Acid are made up of Lead
ii). Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) or Muriatic Acid
Used in digestion
iii). Nitric Acid (HNO3)
Purification of Gold & silver
Weak Acid
Partially ionised in water & gives less H+ ions
e.g. CH3COOH (Acetic acid), Phenolphthalein
Phenolphthalein in acidic soln → Colourless, & in basic soln → Pink.
Ester
Produced by reacting alcohols with Organic acids
Most common are derived from Carboxylic acids
BASES
Alkaline in nature due to OH-ve ions.
Bitter taste
Red litmus to Blue.
Methyl orange → Orange to yellow
Phenolphthalein → Colourless to pink.
Conduct electricity
Slippery, Soapy to touch , Corrosive & Astringent in taste.
e.g. NaOH(Sodium hydroxide), NH4OH, Cu(OH)2, mg(OH)2
Metallic oxide are alkaline(Basic) in nature e.g. Na2O, CaO, MgO
Hydroxides & Oxides are base.
Solution of borax is alkaline
Alkalies → Water soluble base e.g. NaOH, KOH
Strong Base Or Alkali
Completely ionized in water & produces large OH-ve ions.
e.g. NaOH, KOH
Weak Base Or Alkali
Partially ionized in aqueous solution & produce small OH-ve ions.
e.g. NH4OH(Ammonia), Fe(OH)3
Acidity of Base
No of removable hydroxyl ions (OH ⁻)
NaOH = 1, KOH = 1 , Ca(OH)2 = 2
Amphoteric Oxide
Both Acidic & Alkaline Behaviour
Reacts with both Acid & Base.
e.g. Al2O3(Aluminium Oxide), ZnO(Zinc Oxide), Zn(OH)2.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES
Acid or Base + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas
2NaOH(aq) + Zn(s) → Na2ZnO2(s) + H2(g) (Sodium zincate)
Metal Carbonate/Metal Hydrogen Carbonate + Acid → Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water
Na2CO3(Soda) + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCL + H2O + CO2
Base + Acid → Salt + Water (Quick Neutralization)
pH = 7.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water
Base + non metallic oxide → Salt + Water
Non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature.
Acid or a Base in a Water Solution
Both ionisation & Dilution occurs.
Conduct electricity because they produce hydrogen and hydroxide ions respectively.
Concentrated acids or bases + water(highly exothermic process)
CO2 is the reason for Brisk effervescence when lemon juice is dropped on baking soda.
THE PH SCALE
A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution
A commonly used indicator is a universal indicator.
Universal indicator → True PH value.
p in pH stands for ‘Potenz’ in German meaning power.
Depends on hydronium ions.
pH = -log[H+]
if pH = x → [H+] = 10⁻ˣ moles/ltr.
pH ∝ 1 / Hydrogen ion concentration
Acidic < 7 → H +ve increases, OH -ve decreases.
Bases > 7 → OH-ve increases, H+ve decreases
Neutral = 7
Most Acidic = 0
Most basic = 14
Pure water = 7
Gastric juice = 1.2
Lemon juice = 2.2 = Vinegar
Acid rain < 5.6
Milk = 6.5
Blood = 7.4
Milk of magnesia = 10
Importance of pH in Everyday Life
our body works pH 7 - 7.8
tooth decay starts< 5.5
acid rain < 5.6
in digestive system if pH fall it feel pain & irritation
Self defence by animals and plants through chemical warfare,honey-bee
Antacids → use to neutralise acid , use to get rid of pain due to excessive HCl in stomach
SALT
Salts of a strong acid and a strong base are neutral pH = 7
Salts of a strong acid and weak base are acidic pH < 7
Salts of strong base and weak acid are basic pH > 7
Salt is used to melt ice
e.g. common salt(NaCl),
Soaps are Sodium or Potassium salts of long chain Carboxylic acid (-COOH).
Soaps → RCOONa
1. Acidic Salts
Weak alkali + Strong acid → Acidic salt
e.g. MgSO4(Magnesium Sulphate)
pH = 0 - 3.5
2. Basic Salts
Weak acid + Strong base
pH > 10.5
3. Strong acid + Strong base
NaOH(Sodium hydroxide) + HCl → NaCl + H2O
e.g. NaCl (Common salt or Sodium chloride)
Use of common salts
NaCl → Flavouring agent in food, to melt ice
Sodium iodate → Prevent Goitre disease
Sodium carbonate → Washing soda, mfd of glass
Sodium Benzoate → Pickles preservatives
Potassium nitrate → Gunpowder
Calcium chloride → Dehydrating agent to remove moisture from Gases
Calcium Carbonate (Limestone) → Construction, cement industry, extraction of metal
Calcium sulphate → Plaster of paris, cement industry as a gypsum
Calcium phosphate → As a fertiliser
Bleaching powder → Disinfectant, bleaching agent (removing colour )
Alum (potassium aluminium sulphate) → Purification of water, dyeing industry, antiseptic after shave.
CHEMICALS FROM COMMON SALT (NACL)
HCl + NaOH = NaCl + H2O.
i. Sodium hydroxide(NaOH)
When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium chloride (called brine), it decomposes to form sodium hydroxide. The process is called the chlor-alkali process because of the products formed–chlor for chlorine and alkali for sodium hydroxide
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)
ii. Bleaching powder or Calcium Oxychloride (CaOCl2)
chlorine is produced during the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride (brine). This chlorine gas is used for the manufacture of bleaching powder. Bleaching powder is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime [Ca(OH)2].
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2 + H2O
Use
for bleaching cotton and linen in the textile industry, for bleaching wood pulp in paper factories and for bleaching washed clothes in laundry
as an oxidising agent in many chemical industries.
to make drinking water free from germs.
iii. Baking soda or sodium hydrogen carbonate or Sodium bicarbonate(NaHCO3).
NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH3 →NH4Cl + NaHCO3
NaHCO3 is a mild non-corrosive basic salt.
Sodium bicarbonate does not change the colour of pH paper.
Uses
kitchen for making tasty crispy pakoras & for faster cooking
For making baking powder, which is a mixture of baking soda(sodium hydrogen carbonate) and a mild edible acid such as tartaric acid.
NaHCO3 + H+ → CO2 + H2O + Sodium salt of acid.
Carbon dioxide produced during the reaction can cause bread or cake to rise making them soft and spongy.
Sodium hydrogencarbonate is also an ingredient in antacids. Being alkaline, it neutralises excess acid in the stomach and provides relief.
It is also used in soda-acid fire extinguishers.
4. Washing soda or Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3.10H2O)
2NaHCO3 (heat)→ Na2CO3 + H2O+CO2
Recrystallisation of sodium carbonate gives washing soda
Na2CO3(Sodium carbonate) + 10H2O → Na2CO3.10H2O
Washing soda is a basic salt.
Uses
Glass, Soap and Paper industries.
Manufacture of sodium compounds such as borax.
Cleaning agent for domestic purposes.
For removing permanent hardness of water.
Crystals of Salts
Water of crystallisation is the fixed number of water molecules present in one formula unit of a salt.
Copper sulphate crystals(CuSO4. 5H2O) which seem to be dry contain water of crystallisation.
Gypsum → CaSO4.2H2O.
Plaster of paris or Calcium sulphate hemihydrate (CaSO4.½H2O)
Gypsum (heating @373 K)→ Plaster of Paris
pop + water → Gypsum
pop is used for making toys, materials for decoration & for making surfaces smooth
METALS AND NON-METALS
i). Metals (Electropositive elements)
Have a lustre (shine).
Ductile, Malleable & Electropositive
found in the free state
form positively charged ions(Cation) by giving electrons to nonmetals.
Sonorous (make a ringing sound when hit).
Solid except Hg which is Liquid
Good conductor of heat & electricity
Temp ↑es → Conductivity↓es
Silver is best conductor of electricity
High MP & BP.
Solar panel → Silicon
ii). Non metals (Electronegative elements)
Found in all three states i.e solid, liquid & gas.
Bromine is only non metal which is liquid at room temperature.
Form negatively charged ions(Anion) by gain of electrons
Brittle in nature
Not lustrous, sonorous, ductile & malleable
Poor conductors of heat & electricity
Low MP & BP
Non metal oxide → Acidic.
iii). Metalloids
common properties of metal & metalloid
act as Semiconductor
boron, silicon, germanium, Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth .etc
GaAs Gallium Arsenide is a commonly used semiconductor in Solar cells.
solar cell is made up of silicon
Physical Properties Metals
Metals, in their pure state, have a shining surface. This property is called Metallic lustre.
Metals are generally hard.
Some metals can be beaten into thin sheets. This property is called Malleability
Lachili → Au(Gold) > Ag(Silver) > Al > Cu > Sn(Tin) > Pb > Zn > Fe.
Gold(Au) and silver(Ag) are the most malleable metal
The ability of metals to be drawn into thin wires is called ductility.
Gold is the most ductile metal. (1gm gold = up to 2 km length)
metals are good conductors of heat and have high melting points but gallium & caesium have very low melting points.
The best conductors of heat are silver and copper.
Lead and mercury are poor conductors of heat.
The metals that produce a sound on striking a hard surface are said to be sonorous.
All metals exist as solids at room temperature except mercury which is liquid.
Alkali metals (lithium, sodium, potassium) are so soft that they can be cut with a knife. They have low densities and low melting points.
wires have a coating of polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Physical Properties Non Metals
The non-metals are either solids or gases except bromine which is a liquid.
Iodine is non-metal but it is lustrous.
Diamond is the hardest natural substance known and has a very high melting and boiling point.
Graphite is a conductor of electricity.
Non-metals, on the other hand, are electronegative. They tend to form bonds by gaining electrons
Chemical Properties Of Metals
metals tend to lose electrons while forming bonds, that is, they are electropositive in nature.
Metal oxide → Basic in nature
i). When Metals are burnt in Air
Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide(Basic/alkaline)
2Cu(Copper)+ O2 → 2CuO (Copper(II) oxide)
4Al(Aluminium) + 3O2 → 2Al2O3 (Aluminium oxide)
amphoteric oxides → shows both acidic & basic behaviour and reacts with both acids & bases. e.g. aluminium oxide , zinc oxide
Al2O3(aluminium oxide) + 6HCl(acid) → 2AlCl3+ 3H2O
Al2O3 + 2NaOH(base) → 2NaAlO2(Sodium aluminate)+ H2O
Most metal oxides are insoluble in water but some of these dissolve in water to form alkalis. like sodium oxide & potassium oxide
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)
K2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq)
Potassium and sodium react so vigorously that they catch fire & are kept immersed in kerosene oil.
magnesium, aluminium, zinc, lead, etc., are covered with a thin layer of oxide to prevent the metal from further oxidation.
Copper does not burn
Silver and gold do not react with oxygen even at high temperatures.
ii). When Metals react with Water
Metal + Water → Metal oxide + Hydrogen
Metal oxide + Water → Metal hydroxide
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq) + H2(g) + heat energy
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + heat energy
lead, copper, silver and gold do not react with water at all.
iii). When Metals react with Acids
Metal + Dilute acid → Salt + Hydrogen
Reactivity → Mg > Al > Zn > Fe
Copper does not react with dilute HCl.
iv). With Solutions of other Metal Salts
Metal A + Salt solution of B → Salt solution of A + Metal B
v). The Reactivity Series
Properties of Ionic Compounds
(i) Physical nature: solid & hard due to strong force of attraction & generally brittle
(ii) high melting and boiling points due to strong inter-ionic attraction
(iii) soluble in water and insoluble in kerosene, petrol, etc.
(iv) Ionic compounds in the solid state do not conduct electricity But conduct
electricity in the molten state.
OCCURRENCE OF METALS
Source → earth’s crust, Seawater(sodium chloride, magnesium chloride),
Minerals : elements or compounds, which occur naturally in the earth’s crust.
Ores → minerals containing a very high percentage of a particular metal.
Ores of many metals are oxides. This is because oxygen is a very reactive element and is very abundant on the earth.
Ores Roasting → To remove Sulphur
Ores Calcination → To remove Carbonates
Aluminium(Al) is extracted only by Electrolysis.
i). Extraction of Metals
gold, silver, platinum and copper are found in the free state
aluminium is extracted only by electrical decomposition
The metals at the top of the activity series (K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al) are so reactive that they are never found in nature as free elements.
The metals in the middle of the activity series (Zn, Fe, Pb, etc.) are moderately reactive. They are found in the earth’s crust mainly as oxides, sulphides or carbonates
ii). Enrichment of Ores
Ores mined from the earth are usually contaminated with large amounts of impurities such as soil, sand, etc., called gangue.
iii). Extracting Metals Low in the Activity Series
Metals low in the activity series are very unreactive. The oxides of these metals can be reduced to metals by heating alone
2HgS(s) + 3O2 (heat)→ (g) 2HgO(s) + 2SO2 (g) & 2HgO(s) (heat)→ 2Hg(l) + O (g)
2Cu2 S + 3O2(g) →2Cu2O(s) + 2SO2 (g) & 2Cu2O + Cu2S → 6Cu(s) + SO2(g)
iv). Extracting Metals in the Middle of the Activity Series
Roasting : The sulphide ores are converted into oxides by heating strongly in the presence of excess air
2ZnS(s) + 3O2 (g) → 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
Calcination : carbonate ores are changed into oxides by heating strongly in limited air.
ZnCO3 (s) → ZnO(s) + CO (g)
ZnO(s) + C(s) → Zn(s) + CO(g)
obtaining metals from their compounds is also a reduction process.
Reducing agent : highly reactive metals such as sodium, calcium, aluminium.
3MnO2(s) + 4Al(s) → 3Mn(l) + 2Al2O3 (s) + Heat
Thermite reaction : the reaction of iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) with aluminium is used to join railway tracks or cracked machine parts
Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s) → 2Fe(l) + Al2O3(s) + Heat
v). Extracting Metals towards the Top of the Activity Series
obtained by electrolytic reduction.
for example, sodium, magnesium and calcium are obtained by the electrolysis of their molten chlorides. The metals are deposited at the cathode (the negatively charged electrode), whereas chlorine is liberated at the anode (the positively charged electrode). The reactions are –
At cathode (Na +) + (e ⁻) → Na
At anode 2Cl ⁻→ Cl2 + 2e ⁻
vi). Electrolytic Refining
The most widely used method for refining impure metals is electrolytic refining
Such as Copper, zinc, tin, nickel, silver, gold, etc.
impure metal = anode & a thin strip of pure metal = cathode & solution used = metal salt.
anode mud → insoluble impurities settle down at the bottom of the anode
ORES
Aluminum → Bauxite, Corundum
Magnesium(Sea water) → Magnesite, Dolomite
Mercury (Hg) → Cinnabar
iron (Fe) → Haematite, Limonite, Magnetite
Gold (Au) → Calaverite
Zinc (Zn) → Zincite, zinc blende
Lead (Pb) → Galena
Copper → Malachite, Chalkapyrite
Manganese → Pyrolusite
Notes
Gold → Found in the free state.
Mercury → Quicksilver.
CORROSION
slow conversion of metal into their undesirable compounds usually Oxides by reactⁿ with moisture & gas
e.g.Rusting of iron, green coating on surface of copper, tarnishing of silver.
rust formula : Fe2O3.xH2O
copper Carbonate green coating on copper .
Prevention of Corrosion
rusting of iron can be prevented by painting, oiling, greasing, galvanising, chrome plating, anodising or making alloys.
Galvanisation : protecting steel and iron from rusting by coating them with a thin layer of zinc.
iron is very soft and stretches easily when hot but if it is mixed with a small amount of carbon (about 0.05 %), it becomes hard and strong.
ALLOY
Homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a nonmetal.
If one of the metals is mercury, then the alloy is known as an Amalgam
The electrical conductivity and melting point of an Alloy < Pure metals
Cant Heat easily on high Temperature → used in electrical thermal devices
Brass → Cu + Zn → Utensils
Bronze → Cu + Sn → Coins
German Silver → Cu + Zn + Ni
Gun Metal → Cu + Sn + Zn + Pb
Solder → Pb + Sn → Soldering
Stainless Steel → Fe + Cr + Ni + C → Discovered by Harry Brearley
Nickrom → Ni + Fe + Cr + Mn
Steel → Fe + C
Constetun → Cu + Ni
Rold Gold → Cu + Al
Sn = Tin, Cr = Chromium, Pb = Lead, Mn = Mangnise
Compound of metals & non metal
Ammonium Chloride NH4Cl
Ammonia(NH3): reagent in ice factory
Bleaching powder [Ca(OCl)Cl] → Oxidising agent
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) → lime & toothpaste
Carbon monoxide : ↓Hb in blood
Copper Sulphate (CuSO4.5H2O) : blue vitriol
Heavy water (D2O) :
Iodine (I2) : tincture of iodine
Milk of magnesia : Antacid
Nitrous oxide (N2O) : laughing gas, surgery
nitric acid (HNO3) :
Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) : Baking soda
Sodium carbonate(Na2CO3): washing soda
Sulphur (S) : Antiseptic,vulcanization of rubber, gun powder, medicine
Sulphuric acid(H2SO4)
Tear gas : CS gas : Cholorobenalmatano nitrate
Calcium sulphate (CaSO4.2H2O) or Gypsum : cement industry
Plaster of paris (CaSO4 ½H2O) : mfd from gypsum
potassium permanganate KMnO4: oxidising agent
Producer gas (CO + N2)
Water gas (CO + H2)
Quick lime (CaO) : calcium oxide
Zeolite : hydrated sodium aluminium silicate
Important Metals
Sodium, Potassium → Stored in Kerosene oil
If copper is kept in Air it got Green coloured coating of oxides
Free State → Pt, Ag, Au
Sodium (Na) (11)
Latin name → Netrium
Can cut by a Knife easily
Stored in Kerosene oil
Produce Yellow flame
Not Available in free form
Na makes Alkaline Oxide
Na2O → Basic/Alkaline
Baking Soda → Sodium Bicarbonate (Na2CO3) → Relief from Acidity, to Stop Acidification of Milk, to make Borax ,Hardness of water, glass soap paper making, Honeybee bite,
Baking Powder (NaHCO3) → Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate + Tartaric Acid
Salt → Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
Caustic Soda → Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
Sodium Carbonate → Reduce hardness of Water.
2NaHCO3 (Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate) → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O (on Heating)
Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
2NaCl + H2O → 2NaOH + H2 + Cl2
Na2SO4(Sodium Sulphate) + BaCl2(Barium chloride) → BaSO4(Barium sulphate) + 2NaCl
Calcium (Ca) (40)
Use → Blood ko jamane ke liye,
Teeths are made up of Calcium
Not Available in free form
Calcium Oxide/Quicklime (CaO) → un bujha chuna
Calcium Hydroxide/Caustic lime (Ca(OH)2) → Bujha chuna, Lime water, Nimbu paani → White due to CO2
CaO + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2(Slaked lime) + H2
Gypsum on heating → POP
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)(Chalk) → Not Soluble in Water
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
CaO + CO2 → CaCO3
Calcium Phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2)
Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4)
Plaster of paris (CaSO4 ½H2O) → Calcium Sulphate Hemihydrate
Calcium Sulphate Hemihydrate + Water → Calcium sulphate (CaSO4.2H2O) or Gypsum
Bleaching Powder(CaOCl2) → insect , water purification
Aluminium (Al) ( )
React with Air → Makes Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3)
Not react with cold or hot water
Max Available metal in Earth crust
Aluminium Sulphate (Al2(SO4)3)
Hair Salt (Al2(SO4)3.18H2O)
Silver (Ag)
Found in free state
It is a Noble metal
Best Conductor of Electricity
Not react with Oxygen even at high Temperature
Black & White Photography → AgCl & AgBr
Ag + Cl → AgCl (Silver Chloride)
On Sunlight → AgCl → Ag + Cl & AgBr → Ag + Br
Gold (Au) (79)
Found in free state
Latin name → Aurum
Soluble in Aqua regia
Potassium
React quickly with cold water
Stored in Oil
Latin name → Kellium
Potassium Sulphate (K2SO4)
Potassium Nitrate (KNO3)
Iron (Fe) (
Latin name → Ferrum
Stain less Steel → Carbon(0.1 - 0.4%) + Nickel(8%) + Chromium(4.5 - 18%), due to Chromium it is Corrosion less
Iron IIIrd Oxide → Fe2O3
On Heating → Ferrus Sulphate(2FeSO4.7H2O) → Fe2O4(Ferric oxide) + SO2 + SO3 + 7H2O
Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2(Ferrus Chloride) + H2
2Fe2 + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
Corrosion iron → Redish brown colour
Magnesium (Mg) (12)
On Air → 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO(Magnesium oxide) ← White coloured
MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2 (Magnesium hydroxide)
Milk of magnesia/Magnesium Hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) → Ghuti(Lacsetive)
MgCl2 is Water Soluble
MgO solution → basic/alkaline
Lead (Pb) (
On heating → 2Pb(NO3)2(Lead nitrate) → 2PbO(Lead oxide) + 4NO2(Nitrogen oxide) + O2
Pb + CuCl2 (Copper chloride) → PbCl2(Lead chloride) + Cu
Mercury/Quick Silver (Hg)
Amulgum = Hg + …
Liquid state at room temp → due to
Use → Thermometer,
Important Non Metals
Hydrogen
Discovered by Henry Cavendish
lightest gas having 3 isotopes → Protium, Deuterium & Tritium (Radioactive)
Deuterium oxide is known as Heavy hydrogen or Heavy water & used in nuclear reactor as a moderator
liquid Hydrogen is used as Rocket fuel
Hydrogen is known as Range element bcz it can be kept in Group I & VII A.
Hydrogen gas is colourless.
Oxygen
Oxygen → 2 Atoms Of O
Double Bond
Nitrogen
N2 → Use to Preserve Food items
Lead nitrate on heating → Nitrogen oxide gas (Reddish brown gas)
2Pb(NO3)2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
NH4NO3 (Ammonium Nitrate) → N2O + 2H2O
Haber Process → 2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 → 2NH3(Ammonia) + 2H2O + CACl2
NH3 → Pungent odour
Ammonium Sulphate → (NH4)2SO4
Usd in electric bulb → Not to support Dahan
Laughing gas → N2O (Nitrous oxide) → Anesthetics by Teeth Dr.
NO2 → Brown fume
Phosphorous(P)
By Hanning Bround.
Atomic No = 15, Mass =
Kept in Water → it takes Fire in Air.
Use → Match sticks,
Prmanivikata = 4
Phosphoric Acid → H3PO4
Sulphur (S)
Atomic No. = , Mass =
BahuPramanuk > 4 Atoms
Name → latin word
Onion → tears due to Sulphur
Sulphur → Used in LPG for smell
CARBON & COMPOUNDS
Carbon is non-metal
Atomic no = 6 & mass no. = 12, Valency = 4.
Food, clothes, medicines, books, or many of the things that you listed are all based on this versatile element carbon. In addition, all living structures are carbon base
The earth’s crust has only 0.02% carbon in the form of minerals (like carbonates, hydrogen-carbonates, coal and petroleum).
The atmosphere has 0.03% of carbon dioxide
CO2 → Fire control
Dry ice → Solid Carbon dioxide
Sucrose → Table granulated sugar
Sugar → C12H22O11(Lactose)
Glucose → C6H12O6
Furan → C4H4O → Heterocyclic compound
Carbon Compound (Covalent Bond)
formed by sharing electrons.
Covalently bonded molecules are seen to have strong bonds within the molecule,But intermolecular forces are weak
poor conductors of electricity & heat, bonding in these compounds does not give rise to any ions.
insoluble in water & soluble in organic solvents.
have low MP & BP as compared to ionic compounds
max no of bond = 03
i). Single covalent bond
Two hydrogen atoms.( H-H)
ii). Double bond
Cl2 (Cl=Cl)
Two oxygen atoms.
iii). Triple bond
N2, NH3
Carbon is tetravalent because it has four valence electrons CH4
Allotropy
Same chemical properties
Diff physical properties → Diff arrangement of Atoms
Allotropes of Carbon → Diamond, graphite, charcoal
Diamond
purest form of carbon
hardest natural known substance
bad conductor of Electricity & heat
high BP & Density
chemically inert & on heating above 1500°C transferred into Graphite.
Bond → with 4 other carbon
Graphite (Plumbago or black lead)
Good conductor of Electricity & heat
Use → pencil, electrodes of electric furnace
Bond → with 3 other carbon → Hexagonal Lattice
Fullerenes
C-60 Buckminsterfullerene → like Football
Similar Shape like Globe
Fullerene = 60 carbon atoms
Versatile Nature Of Carbon
The nature of the covalent bond enables carbon to form a large number of compounds
Reason 1 - Catenation
Carbon has the unique ability to form bonds with other atoms of carbon.
Carbon atoms may be linked by single, double or triple bonds.
Saturated compounds → Only single bond
Unsaturated compounds → Double or triple bonds
carbon-carbon bond is very strong and hence stable
Reason 2 - Tetravalency
Carbon has a valency of four, it is capable of bonding with four other atoms of carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent element.
One reason for the formation of strong bonds by carbon is its small size.
Hydrocarbon
Carbon compounds which contain only carbon and hydrogen
Organic chemistry → Study of Hydrocarbons & Derivatives.
Every Hydrocarbon will differentiate by CH2(Methanil) from Prevoius memeber (Methene - Ethane = CH2)
Mass → CH2 = 14.
Nomenclature of Organic Compound
C → Meth, C2 → Eth, C3 → Prop, C4 → But, C5 → Pent, C6 → Hex, C7 → Hept, C8 → Oct, C9 → Non, C10 → Dec.
Propane → C3H8 → Hot Baloons,
Chloroform → CHCL3
Weldding → Ethyne + Oxygen
i). Saturated hydrocarbon or Alkanes or Paraffin
Singly bond b/w C atom
Relatively Unreactive under ordinary lab conditions so it is called Paraffin.
Alkanes → CnH2n+2 → Single bond
Ex. CH4(ethane), C2H6(methane)
ii). Unsaturated Hydrocarbon
Either Double or Triple bond b/w C atoms.
Gives Yellow flame with lots of black smoke.
Alkenes → CnH2n → Double bond, ex ethene(C2H4), propene(C3H6)
Alkynes → CnH2n-2 → Triple bond, ex. C2H2 Ethyne(Acetylene)
Other Eg. → Benzene(C6H6),
iii). Aromatic Hydrocarbon
Contain at least one benzene ring
Due to pleasant smell they are called Aromatic
ex. Benzene, Naphthalene, Anthracene
Chains, Branches and Rings
Compounds with identical molecular formulas but different structures are called Structural isomers.
Functional Groups
The element replacing hydrogen is referred to as a Heteroatom.
Aldehyde, Alcohol, Ketone, Carboxylic acid.
Aldehyde
-CHO
CnH2n+1CHO
Eg. HCOH(Methanol)(Formaldehyde), CH2COH(Ethanol)(Acetaldehyde), C2H5COH(Propenol)(Propionaldehyde), C3H7COH(Butanol)(Butyraldehyde)
Alcohol
-OH
CnH2n+1OH
Glicroll/Glyserine→ C3H8O3
Methanol(CH3OH) → Basic Alcohol
Ethanol (C2H5OH) → Cough Syroup, iodine tincture, BP = 78°C, from Sugarcane,
Ketone
>C=O
(CnH2n+1)2CO
Carboxylic acid
-COOH
Ethanoic Acid(CH3COOH) → Acitic Acid or Vinegar
Homologous Series
a series of compounds in which the same functional group substitutes for hydrogen in a carbon chain is called a homologous series.
CnHm - m should be even, e.g. CH4,C2H6,C3H8.
For example, the chemical properties of CH3OH, C2H5OH, C3H7OH & C4H9OH are all very similar
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS
i). Combustion
Carbon, in all its allotropic forms, burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide along with the release of heat and light
Saturated hydrocarbons - clean flame & unsaturated carbon compounds - yellow flame with lots of black smoke.
Fuels such as coal and petroleum have some amount of nitrogen and sulphur in them. Their combustion results in the formation of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen which are major pollutants in the environment.
ii). Oxidation
Oxidising agents :Alkaline potassium permanganate or acidified potassium dichromate are oxidising alcohols to acids, that is, adding oxygen to the starting material.
iii). Addition Reaction
Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen in the presence of catalysts such as palladium or nickel to give saturated hydrocarbons
Animal fats generally contain saturated fatty acids which are harmful for health
Vegetable oils generally have long unsaturated carbon chains
Oils containing unsaturated fatty acids should be chosen for cooking.
iv). Substitution Reaction
Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive and are inert in the presence of most reagents However,in the presence of sunlight, chlorine is added to hydrocarbons in a very fast reaction
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl (in the presence of sunlight)
Some Important Carbon Compounds
i). Ethanol(CH3CH2OH)
Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature
commonly called alcohol & it is the active ingredient of all alcoholic drinks.
melting and boiling point = &
it is a good solvent & also soluble in water in all proportions
used in medicines such as tincture iodine, cough syrups, and many tonics.
intake of even a small quantity of pure ethanol (called absolute alcohol) can be lethal(जानलेवा)
2Na + 2CH3CH2OH → 2CH3CH2O⁻(Na+)+ H2
Heating ethanol at 443 K with excess concentrated sulphuric acid results in the dehydration of ethanol to give ethene
CH3-CH2OH →CH2=CH2 + H2O (in presence ofH2SO4)
ii). Ethanoic Acid or Acetic acid (CH3COOH)
Belongs to carboxylic acids.
Vinegar = 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water & used as a preservative in pickles.
Melting point of pure ethanoic acid = 290 K
Glacial acetic acid. : freezed ethanoic Acid.
Reactions of Ethanoic acid
(i) Esterification reaction
Esters are most commonly formed by reaction of an acid and an alcohol.
esters are sweet-smelling substances & used in making perfumes and as flavouring agents
Ester smell → like Fruits
On treatment with sodium hydroxide, which is an alkali, the ester is converted back to alcohol and sodium salt of carboxylic acid. This reaction is known as Saponification because it is used in the preparation of soap
Soaps are Sodium or Potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acid.
(ii) Reaction with a base
NaOH + CH3COOH → CH3COONa( sodium acetate or sodium ethanoate ) + H2O
(iii) Reaction with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates:
Give rise to salt, carbon dioxide and water. The salt produced is commonly called sodium acetate(CH3COONa).
SOAPS AND DETERGENTS
Molecules of soap are sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids.
Soap molecule → Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail
The ionic-end of soap interacts with water while the carbon chain interacts with oil.
The soap molecules, thus form structures called micelles.
Detergents are generally sodium salts of sulfonic acids or ammonium salts with chlorides or bromides ions, etc. Both have long hydrocarbon chain
Detergents are usually used to make shampoos and products for cleaning clothes.
Glycerin(Glycerol) is a by Product of Soap
POLYMERISATION
Simple molecule → Macromolecule (Polymer)
Naturally occurring polymers → Protein, Nucleic acid, cellulose starch .etc
Rayon (Artificial silk) → Cloths
Fibre → Nylon 6-6, Dacron, Orlon.
Plastic
Cross linked Polymer & Very tough
Lac → Natural plastic
i) Thermoplastic
Easily softened repeatedly when heated & Hardened when cooled.
Teflon, Polyethylene, Polystyrene, Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Chloride
Teflon(C2F4)n or Polytetrafluoroethylene→ Coating of non sticky surface, Food containers,
PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) → Pipes, Floor tiles,
ii) Thermosetting P
Goes under permanent change on heating
ex. Bakelite, Glyptal, Terrylene
Bakelite (Phenol-formaldehyde resin) → Insulator, Combs, Fountain pen, Photographs, Electrical goods Melamine,
Rubber
Polymer which returns its original length, shape or size.
Natural rubber → latex form : isoprene
Synthetic rubber → Neoprene,thiokol.
Vulcanization of rubber
Treating natural rubber with sulphur or some other compound of sulphur to give strength & elasticity.
Used to mfd rubber bands, gloves, car tyres
Behaviour Of Gases & Energetics
Due to compressibility gases are portable to carry
At absolute zero temp molecular motion of gas become zero
ideal gas equation
pV = nRT
T = kelvin, V =m³ , p = Patm, R = 0.82
R = 8.314 JK⁻¹mol⁻¹ = 1.987 calK⁻¹mol⁻¹
a gas will behave ideal at very low pressure & high Temperature
ABC GH
Avogadro gas law → V ∝ n (p & T constant)
Boyle's law → V ∝ 1/p, pV = constant (T constant)
Charles's law → V ∝ T (p constant)
Gay-Lussac's law → p ∝ T (V constant)
Henry's Law → p ∝ C (C = Concentration of dissolved Gas)
Low Pressure & High Temperature → Gas is extremely soluble.
STP = std temperature & pressure
NTP = normal temp & pressure
Diffusion of gases
intermixing of gases.
particles move from high to low concentration.
possible when particle are in motion
e.g. smoke, perfume vapour, incense sticks smoke.
Graham's law of diffusion
Rate of diffusion (r) ∝ 1/√(Density (d))
Molecular mass(M) = 2 x vapour Density(d)
Dalton's law of partial pressure
Two or more gases do not react chemically
∑pressure = ∑ of pressure exerted by each gases.
FUELS
in cigarette lighter → Butane gas is used
Quantity of fuel is expressed in the form of calorific value(kJ/kg)
Solid → Wood, coal
Liquid → Kerosene oil, petroleum, alcohol
Gas → Water gas, producer gas,coal gas, oil gas, natural gas, gobar gas, LPG
Gases fuel are considered to be best fuel
On Heating → CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
Marsh Gas → Methane
Biogas → Mainly contain CH4(Methane)
CNG → Compressed Natural gas, CH4 is main constitute,
PNG (Piped natural gas) → Smokeless fuel, Pollution free, cost effective
Heating → Coal/ Petroleum → Nitrogen Oxide + Sulphur Oxide
Heating → Hydrocarbon → CO2 + H2O
Ethanol is used with Fuel in Cars/Vehicles
Calorific Value
Total quantity of heat liberated by complete combustion of a unit mass of fuel in air or oxygen
Hydrogen has the highest calorific value
kcal/m³ or BTU/ft³ → kcal/m³ = 0.107 BTU/ft³
Notes
Water gas or Syngas or (CO+H2)
Producer gas (CO+N2)
Coal gas mix of H2,CH4,CO & N2,C2H4,O2
OIL gas :H2, CH4, C2H4, CO, used in laboratories
Gobar gas CH4,CO, H2
Natural gas mix of Gaseous hydrocarbon 85% methane, ethane, propane .etc
Petroleum Gas → LPG, CNG
LPG (Liquid Petroleum Gas)
mix of Butane + isobutane + Small amount of propane
Stored in Liquid Form
CNG(Compressed Natural Gas)
Compressed at very high pressure
Consists mainly of methane 95%, Other 5% ethane, propane & butane
Knocking
Metallic sound produced due to irregular burning of fuel
↓es efficiency of engine
Octane rating or no.
Heptane = 0 ← max knocking
iso octane = 100 ← min knocking
MISCELLANEOUS
Half life of Uranium 236 = 2.348*10⁷ years
Ethylene is used for ripening of fruits
Barood → Potassium nitrate(KNO3)
Dynamite → Alfred Nobel
Soft drink → Carbonated water
BIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Biology term was 1st coined by Lamarck & treviranus
Botany : study of plant , Theophrastus
Zoology : study of Animal,
Aristotle : Father of both Biology & Zoology
Charles Darwin : father of evolution & book "Origin of Species".
Hippocrates : father of medicine.
Major branches of Biology
Anthropology → Study of Human Culture
Adhaphology → Effect of Soil on Living things
Andrology → Males specific Disease
Arachnology → Stuidy of Spider
Cytology → Study of cell
Cardiology → Heart
Cynology → Domestic dogs
Dendrology → Study of woody plants
Demography → Population
Dermatology → Skin
Ecology → Animals & Environment relations
Ethology : animal behaviour in their natural habitat
Ethology : scientific & objective study of animal behaviour
Epigraphy : preservation of historical article
Entomology : insects
Ethnography →
Exobiology → Beyond earth & live
Gynaecology : female reproductive organ.
Gerontology : study of older adults
Haematology → blood
Herpetology : study of Amphibians
Histology : microanatomy of cells,tissues & organs as seen through a microscope
Haptology → Livir diseas & treatment
ichthyology → Study of fish
Mycology → Fungi
Morphology → Shape, Structure of living things
Ophthalmologist → Treats Eyes
Oneirology → Study of Dreams
Ornithology → Birds
Oncology → Cancer
Sericulture → Study of Silkworms( रेशम किट)
Saurology → Chipkali
Pomology : study or cultivation of fruit crops
Poterb cultivation : olericulture(सब्जियों की खेती)
Phytology → Plants study
Phytomorphology → Plant structure ,study of physical form & external structure of Plants
Phytopathlogy → Plants Disease
Pedology : soil
Phychology : Algae
Palaeontology → fossil
Primatology → Human like beings eg. Vanar, vanmanush
Taxonomy → Classification of Organisms
Taxicology → Poission
Viticulture : Grape farming
CYTOLOGY → Study Of Cell
Cell is a Latin word for “a little room”.
Robert hooke → 1st coined the term cell
Cell theory → Schleiden & Schwan
Robert Brown discovered the nucleus
RNA form in nucleus
Virus doesn't fit in cell theory.
Chlorophyll contains Magnesium
Longest cell → Neuron(Nerve cells)
Largest cell → Ostrich egg.
Largest Organelle in a cell is Nucleus.
ATP → Energy currency of cell
Unicellular Organisms
Single cell constitute a whole organism
Breathe → Through cell membrane
ex. Amoeba ,Euglena,Chlamydomonas,Paramecium,Bacteria, Monera & Protista groups.
No nucleus but contain nuclei
Fungi can be unicellular or multicellular
Plant Cell
Orange colour of carrot is due to Carotene
Chlorophyll contains magnesium, Carbon, oxygen, nitrogen.
Plant cell wall is made up of Cellulose
Cell structure
Cells are made of a variety of chemical substances–proteins, carbo-hydrates, fats or lipids .etc
Same features → Plasma membrane,nucleus & cytoplasm.
Biggest Animal cell → Neuron
Cell contains max amount of water (80%)
i). Cell wall
Plant cell wall made-up of cellulose or chitin
Provides structural strength to plant cells
Plasmolysis when a living cell loses water, there is shrinkage of contents of a cell away from the cell wall.
ii). Cell membrane or Plasma cell
Outermost covering of the cell.
It is called a Selectively Permeable membrane (because it prevents movement of some materials).
helps in diffusion and osmosis
Diffusion → Movement of substance from high concentration to low concentration.
Eg. exchange of carbon dioxide or oxygen with an external environment.
Osmosis → it is the passage of water from the region of high water concentration to a region of low water concentration through a selectively permeable membrane.
Cell engulfs food is called endocytosis and ejects solid is called exocytosis.
iii). Nucleus(Control room)
Within nucleoplasm nucleolus & chromatin material is present
fⁿ → controls all activities of cell
Biggest part in cell
plays a central role in cellular activities/ reproduction.
Pyruvic acid break down into CO2 & H2O & energy
Chromatin material gets organised into chromosomes.
Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of features from parents to next generations in the form of DNA( DeoxyriboNucleic Acid ) and protein molecules.
Genes are functional segments of DNA
iv). Protoplasm
Word given by JE purkinje
Entire content of living cell
Cytoplasm, nucleoplasm
Cytoplasm
jelly-like substance surrounding nucleus cell
synthesis of Fatty acids occurs.
Nucleoplasm
fluid inside the nuclear membrane
v). Mitochondria or power house:
metabolism of cell
have their own DNA and Ribosomes
respiratory site of cell
vi). Golgi bodies
first described by Camillo Golgi.
It is a system of membrane bound vesicles called cisterns.
Storage,modification and package of cell products.
complex sugars are made from simple sugars in the Golgi apparatus
vii). Endoplasmic reticulum
Transport of material b/w various regions of cytoplasm & nucleus.
Proteins and fat molecules produced by ER help in membrane biogenesis.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
Sites of protein synthesis
Ribosomes are attached to its surface
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) :
sites of fat molecules synthesis
Ribosomes are not attached to its surface.
viii). Ribosome (Protein factory)
Made up of RNA→Protein
Site for protein synthesis.
Type → Eukaryotic & Prokaryotic ribosomes.
ix). Lysosome or Suicidal bag
fⁿ → intracellular Digestion
Found only in Animals cell
It is a waste disposal system of the cell.
x). Plastid
Only in plants
Plastids have their own DNA & Ribosomes; therefore they can make their own proteins.
3 Types of Plastid
i.Chloroplast or Kitchen of cell
ii.Chromoplast
iii.Leucoplasts
xi). Vacuoles
Storage sacs for solid or liquid contents
Helps to provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell.
Helps to provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell
Amino acids, sugars, organic acids and proteins are stored in vacuoles.
Meristematic cell → Rise to various organs of plants & keep plant growing
Keratin protein → Protects the epithelial cells from damage.
Cell division = 02 types
1.mitosis : prophase → metaphase → Anaphase → Telophase
2.meiosis :
Chromosome
Chromosome: made up of DNA & protein
Polyploidy : due to no. of chromosomes
XX → Girl & XY → Boy
Human cells = 46 chromosome
Allele → a pair of contrasting characters controlling the same trait.
Webbed neck → Characteristics of Turner's syndrome
HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
Genetics
Deals with Heredity and variation.
Genetic word coined by w.watson
Heredity
Transmission of features/characters/ traits from one generation to the next generation.
Variation → Differences among the individuals
Gregar johan mendel
Father of Genetics
Pea plant for his experiments
Monohybrid Cross
e.g. Tall / Short Plants.
Phenotypic ratio = 3 : 1
Genotypic ratio = 1 : 2 : 1
Dihybrid Cross
Phenotypic ratio(F2)= 9:3:3:1
Genotypic ratio = 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1
Factor Responsible for Sex Determination
i). Environmental
In some animals the temperature at which the fertilised eggs are kept decides the gender.eg. in Turtle
ii). Genetic
Deals with Heredity and variation.
Genetic word coined by w.watson
Determined by a pair of chromosome called sex chromosome
Human cell = 23 pair = 46 chromosome
22 pairs are Autosomes & the last pair is sex chromosome.
XX Chromosomes → Female
XY Chromosomes → Male
REPRODUCTION
DNA present in Chromosome Cell
Crude birth rate → live births per 1000 people each year.
i). Asexual Reproduction
A Single parent is involved
Gametes not formed
Progeny is Identical to parent
eg. Fission in Amoeba
Different forms of Asexual R.
Fission → Cell divides/splits into two or more, e.g. Amoeba
Budding → Outgrowth of the parent body part. E.g. yeast
Spore Formation → Spores are small, bulb-like structures developed at the top of the erect hyphae of the fungus plant,released into the air and germinate , into new individuals after landing into food or soil.
Fragmentation → Broken pieces of an organism (fragments) grows into a complete organism. eg.spirogyra
Regeneration → Hydra Planaria develop a new individual from their broken older part
Vegetative Propagation → Parts like the Stem, Root, Leaves develop into new plants, Eg. Sugarcane, rose, grapes , Plants can bear flowers, fruits earlier than those produced from seeds, Growing Banana, orange, rose, jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce seeds.
ii). Sexual Reproduction
Both Parents involved
Gametes are formed
Progeny is only genetically similar to the parent.
Fertilisation → Fusion of two Gametes
i. Sexual Reproduction in Plants
mostly in flowering plants, flower are reproductive organ of plants
Bisexual Flowers
Both male and female reproductive part i.e., stamen & carpel present.
Eg. Hibiscus, mustard
Unisexual Flowers
Either male or female reproductive part is present.
Eg. Papaya, Watermelon
A typical flower consists of four main whorls namely calyx (sepals), Corolla(Petals), Androecium (Stamens) and Gynoecium (Carpels).
Fertilisation → The fusion between the pollen grain and female egg cell. It occurs inside the ovary. Zygote is produced in this process.
ii. Reproduction In Human Beings
Teastes → Production of male gametes(sperm)
Contraception
Avoidance of pregnancy
i. Physical barrier
Prevent union of sperm & egg
Condoms, Diaphragm & Cervical cap
ii. Surgical method
Vasectomy → Vas deferens of male is blocked
Tubectomy → Fallopian tube of female is blocked
Copper-T or Loop → Placed in uterus
iii. Chemical method
Oral contraceptive (OCs)
Sexually Transmitted Disease (STDs)
Due to unsafe sexual contacts
Viral Std → HIV AIDS
Bacterial Std → Syphilis, Gonorrhoea.
TISSUE
Group of cell having similar origin, str & fⁿ
Histology → Study of tissue
in unicellular organism(Amoeba) Single cell perform all basic fⁿ.
ANIMAL TISSUE
04 Types → Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, Nervous.
a). Epithelial tissue
A protective covering forming a continuous sheet.
A simple epithelium is extremely thin in one layer.
Stratified epithelium is arranged in patterns of layers, Available in Skin.
4 Types
Squamous Epithelial → in lining of mouth & Esophagus
Cuboidal Epithelial → in lining of kidney tubules & salivary glands
Columnar Epithelial → in intestine & CE with Cilia in lining of respiratory tract.
Glandular Epithelial → inward folds of E tissue, columnar cells Secrete substance at epithelial surface.
b). Connective Tissue
05 types → Blood, Bone, Cartilage,
i. Blood
Blood is only tissue which is in Fluid form.
Blood plasma = Rbc+wbc+platelets
Blood plasma contains protein,salts & hormones
Transport gases, digestive food, hormones & waste material
ii Bone
Hard matrix composed of Calcium & Phosphorus
Ligaments connect Bone to Bone
Tendon connect Bone to muscle
iii Cartilage
Solid matrix composed of Proteins & Sugar
Chondrocytes : mature cell of Cartilage
Seen in nose, ear, trachea & larynx
iv Areolar ct
b/w skin & muscles around the blood vessels
Support internal organs & aids in repair of tissue.
v.Adipose ct
it is filled with fat globules for storage of fat
Acts as insulator
c). Muscular tissue
Types = 03 → Striated, Unstraited, cardiac.
Have special contractile proteins responsible for movements
Striated or Skeletal or Voluntary muscles
Cylindrical, un-branched & multi nucleated
Have dark & light bands
Unstraited or Smooth or involuntary muscles
No striations (dark & light bands are absent
Spindle shape
Alimentary canal, uterus, iris of eye
Cardiac or Heart muscles
Cylindrical, branched & uninucleate.
involuntary in nature
d). Nervous tissue
Responds to stimuli
Brain , spinal cord & nerves are composed of Nervous tissue or neurones
A neuron consists of Cell body, Cytoplasm, Nucleus, Dendrite, Axon, nerve ending.
Neurons allow us to move our muscles.
Membrane
Cutaneous → ex. Skin
Adipose tissue → store fats.
Skeletal muscles or Bone are attached to the skeleton by tough connective tissue called Ligament
PLANT TISSUE
Types = 02 → Meristematic, Permanent.
a). Meristematic Tissue
Grow & constitute diff parts of the plant.
Meristem : growing region of plants
Having power of cell division
Apical meristems present at growing tip of the stem & roots & increases length
Lateral meristems lateral side of stem & root(cambium) & increases girth
intercalary meristem internodes or base of leaves & increases length b/w nodes
b). Permanent Tissue
Types = 2 → Simple, Complex P Tissue
Simple P Tissue
Made up of one type cell
i. Parenchyma
living tissue provide support to plants,
loosely packed & large intercellular space
Store food & water
Chlorenchyma parenchyma with chlorophyll which performs photosynthesis
Aerenchyma P with large space to give buoyancy
ii. Collenchyma
Provide mechanical support → Flexibility, Bending, Strength
thickened at corner,
Allow bending of parts of plant without breaking,
Very little intercellular space.
iii. Sclerenchyma
makes plant hard & stiff,
thickened wall due to lignin,
No cellular space,
Cells of this tissue are Dead
e.g.husk of coconut
iv. Guard cells & Epidermal tissue aids in protection & exchange of gases,
Epidermis → outermost layer of cells
guard cells kidney shaped in dicots & dumbbell shaped in monocots to guard Stomata.
epidermal tissue of roots aid in absorption of water & minerals
ET in desert plants have a thick waxy coating of Cutin with waterproof quality
ET form several layer thick cork or the bark of tree
Complex P Tissue
made up of more than one type of cell
conducting tissue & consists of a vascular bundle.
i. Xylem
consist of Tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma & xylem fibre
cells have thick wall
transport water,gases & nutrients from soil to stems & leaves
ii. Phylum
made up of give type of cells Sieve cells, sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem fibre & phloem parenchyma
except phloem fibre other phloem cells are living cells
Organic compounds(foods) from leaves to diff parts
DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMS
Greek thinker Aristotle classified animals according to whether they lived on land, in water or in air.
Charles Darwin → origin of species by natural selection.
Taxonomy → Classification of Organisms
Linnaeus → Father of taxonomy & divided organisms in two kingdoms
Hierarchy of Classification → Kingdom→Phylum→Class→Order→Family→Genus→Species.(Linnaeus system)
Carl Woese → Divided Monera into Archaebacteria and Eubacteria.
05 kingdom classification by R.H. whittaker(1969)
i. Monera
Unicellular, Prokaryotic organisms
Ex. Bacteria, Anabaena
Synthesizing food on their own(Autotrophic)
Nuclear membrane is absent
ii. Protista
Unicellular eukaryotic organisms
Body is covered by cilia, flagella for locomotion.
Autotrophic or heterotrophic.
ex. Amoeba 🦠,Diatoms, protozoans.
iii. Fungi
Multicellular eukaryotic organisms with cell wall, made up of Chitin
Don't perform photosynthesis (heterotrophic), Saprophytic (derive nutrition from decaying material)
Fungi living with algae forms Lichen
Mushroom, yeast, Aspergillus, Penicillium,Rhizopus.
iv. Plantae
Multicellular eukaryotic organisms with cell walls made up of Cellulose.
All plants except algae,fungi,monera & protista
v). Animalia
Multicellular eukaryotic organisms without cell wall.
Heterotrophic
All animals
Largest phylum of Animalia = Arthopoda(includes insects), than mollusca
Binomial nomenclature was founded by Carl Linnaeus
Virus : Considered both living & non living organisms
Paramecium : common name is “Slipper animalcule”
Pseudopodia : an arm like projection filled with cytoplasm
Animal kingdom
i. protista/protozoa
ex. Amoeba,euglena
ii. Porifera
ex. Spongs,
iii. Coelenterata
in hydra bidding type reproduction occurs
ex. Jellyfish,
iv. Annelida
v. Arthropoda
⅔rd of species are Arthropods
have joint legs
ex. insects, Prawn,spiders, Crab 🦀,
Cellar spider = Daddy long-legs
Cockroach 🪳 : open vascular system
Saharan silver ant : world fastest ant species
Spiders belongs to Arachnids class of animals
Spider monkey's scientific name is Arboreal Ateles.
vi. Mollusca
2nd largest animal phylum
ex. Snails 🐌, Octopus 🐙, oyster 🦪, cuttlefish,
Octopus is called devil-fish
vii. Chordata
Chordates : heart is ventral ex. Vertebrates
Non-Chordates : gill slits are absent
Amphibia
have a 3-chambered heart with 2 atria & single ventricle
Reptiles
4-chambered heart
ex. Crocodile 🐊,
Chuckwalla : is a Lizard
Snake's are vertebrate
Cobra scientific name is Elapidae
Aves
warm blooded
Humming bird is smallest living birds
Ostrich is largest living bird
Drongo makes sound of other birds to steal food
⇒ex Pigeon,
Mammalia
warm blooded
joey : young kangaroo
Cats scientific name is Felis Catus
sheep scientific name is Bovidae Ovid
whale shark 🦈 : biggest fish in sea
Dog scientific name is Canis familiaris
Presence of bone is an unique character of vertebrata
Plant Kingdom
A. Cryptogams :plant without seeds
1. Thallophyta
i.Algae
ii.Fungi
fungi disease: rust of wheat, tikka disease of groundnut, Late blight of potato
Rhizopus is a fungus commonly known as bread mould.
lichens : association of algae & fungi
2. Bryophyta
dominant phase is Gametophytes
vascular bundles are absent
Amphibian of plants
3.Pteridophyta
reproduce with help of Spores
seeds absent
ex. ferns & allied,
B. Phanetoprams : with seeds
1. Gymnospermae
vascular bundle are present
ex pinus tree,
2. Angiospermae
Companion cells.
concealed seeds or seeds inside fruit.
root, leaves, flower , fruits & seeds are fully developed
i.monocotyledons
ii.Dicotyledons
Scientific name
introduced by Carolus Linnaeus
PLANT MORPHOLOGY
Study of plant
1.root
2.Stem
3.Leaf
lungs of plant
4.flower
HUMAN BLOOD
Blood = 7% of body weight
a fluid connective tissue
pH = 7.4
Average 5 - 6 ltrs
Spleen storage organ for blood
Normal systolic/diastolic blood pressure = 120/80 mm of Hg
Systole : contraction of heart
Hepirean : no blood clotting
Sphygmomanometer : measure blood pressure
Haematopoiesis - takes place in bone marrow.
Blood parts
i. Plasma
liquid part/component of blood
60% of blood
90% water + 7% protein + 0.9%salt + 0.1%glucose.
fⁿ - transportation of digested food, hormones
ii. Blood corpuscles
RBC > Blood platelets > WBC
1. RBC or Erythrocytes
formatⁿ : bone marrow
life : 120 days (4 months)
destruction : liver & spleen
haemoglobin : haeme : iron : red colour.
main fⁿ of hb is to transport oxygen.
Hb has the highest affinity with CO.
Anaemia : deficiency of Hb or RBC
jaundice : deficiency of RBC
healthy person 100 ml blood contains 12-16 grams Hb
RBC = 5-5.5 million per mm³ of blood
in high altitude no. of RBCs increases.
Polycythemia- increased RBCs in blood
Carries Oxygen
2. WBC or Leukocytes
formatⁿ : Bone marrow ,Lymph
Soldier of the human body.
life = 13 - 20 days
death : Bone marrow
fⁿ - immunity system, protection from disease
Vitamin A increases WBC
WBC type : Lymphocyte & monocyte(largest cell of body)
Diseases → AIDS, blood cancer.
3. Blood platelets or Thrombocytes:
formatⁿ : Bone marrow
fⁿ - clotting of blood
dengue : platelets reduce
Fibrinogen : imp protein for making clot of blood
Thrombin : during reactⁿ of blood clotting
Prothrombin is responsible for clotting of blood released by Blood platelets.
Blood Group
By landsteiner : A,B,AB,O.
Universal donor O
Universal Receptor is AB
HUMAN BODY
The strongest muscle is Jaw.
Sinus → an Anatomical cavity filled with air.
Thymus Gland is active only till Puberty.
Hardest substance in human body → Tooth Enamel
A. Digestive system
05 Stages of nutrition
1.ingestion : taking food into mouth
2.Digestion : mouth→
3.Absorption : mixing in blood
4.Assimilation : use of absorbed food
5.Defecation : large intestine→annus
Alimentary canal
Mouth to Anus.
Secretes Bile juice & pancreatic juice to digest Fat
Mucosa : innermost layer lining the lumen
Saliva: secreted by salivary gland & contains amylase or ptyalin enzyme & converts Starch→sugar(maltose).
Gastric glands secrete Gastric juice like hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride, sodium chloride in the stomach.
Gastric juice contain enzyme : Pepsin & Renin
Pepsin : breaks protein into peptones
Pancreatic juice contains three enzymes i.e. Trypsin,Amylase, Lipase.
Trypsin : convert Protein & peptone into polypeptide & amino acid
Small intestine
Digestion of food completed
Divided into 03 parts (DJI)
1.Duodenum : release Bile juice
2.Jejunum
3.ileum
digestion completed in small intestine
Villi : the lining of the small intestine covered with the outer part like a little finger.
Oesophagus : food tube.
Molar/premolar = 3/2
pH < 5.5 : tooth decay starts
small intestine > large intestine
HCL pH for pepsin = 1.8
Appendix : finger like blind - ended tube connected to cecum
Type of teeth = 04
Canine teeth = 04 tearing food apart
incisor tooth = 08 Biting & Cutting
Premolars = 08 chewing & grinding food
Molars = 12 crushing food
Enamel : hardest part of tooth
Main organ participating in Digestion
Liver (biochemical laboratory)
Bile juice is secreted through the liver only.
Largest gland of body
does detoxification
store fat soluble vitamins
Synthesised Cholesterol
Gallbladder
Bile storage.
Pancreas
2nd largest gland.
Secrets lipase enzyme
Produce insulin
Contain two types of cells-exocrine & endocrine.
B. Blood Circulatory system
Heart:
Human = 4 chambers
Normal heart beat per minute = 60 - 100.
Sino-artrialnode is located
Vein : blood body → heart
Arteries : heart → body & use to measure Pulse rate.
Right ventricle : from right atrium & pumps it to the lungs
Aorta : largest artery
Due to air bubbles in blood flow is obstructed & it becomes dangerous.
Right of pulmonary artery is Longer than left
ECG - electrocardiogram.
Sympathetic nerves increases the rate of Heart beat
Blood leaving the liver & moving towards the heart has higher concentration of bile pigments
CO reduces oxygen carrying capacity.
C. Respiratory system
Breathing rate = 12 - 20 times/minutes. & ↑es up to 25 during exercise.
During inhalation ribs move upwards & during exhalation move downwards.
External Respiration
Exchange of gases takes place inside Lungs.
Transportation of Gases
Lungs to Cell
transported by Blood
Oxygen by Hb (Haemoglobin)
O2 + Hb → HbO2
Internal Respiration
Exchange of gases take place inside Cells
Completed inside Cytoplasm & mitochondria.
Types of internal Respiration = 02
i. Anaerobic
one molecule of glucose gives 02 ATP molecules.
in absence of oxygen.
ii. Aerobic
Glucose → CO2 + H2O + energy
Take place in cytoplasm of the cell
Cellular respiration
i. Glycolysis
One molecule of glucose gives 02 ATP molecule
ii. Kreb's cycle or Citric acid cycle or Tricarboxylic cycle.
Respiratory organ
insects - Tracheae
Fish - Gills
Whale & dolphin are mammal - Lungs
Frog - lungs & skin
Cockroach 🪳 & insects - spiracles
Earthworm 🪱- Skin
Diaphragm - chest cavity
Leaves - Stomata
larynx - sound production.
Cramps in legs during heavy exercise is due to lactic acid.
Pyruvate → three-carbon molecule productⁿ
Alveoli
provide space for exchange of gases.
extract or diffusion of gases like CO2.
D. Excretory System:
main organ
Kidney
Cortex - outer part
Medulla - inner part
Nephron - structural & functional unit
Bowman's capsule - cup like str in every Nephron
Creatinine - found in urine
Urochrome - pale yellow colour to urine
kidney stones are composed of Calcium oxalate.
blood filtered oF 7kg adult man = 1100ml per minute.
ureter - urine from kidney to urinary bladder.
urine is acidic pH = 6
Skin
Liver
produce urea
Lungs
E. Nervous System.
Neurons : basic structural & functional unit of NS
Pituitary gland → Follicle stimulating hormone
Human Brain
Forebrain
main thinking part of brain
Midbrain
The hindbrain
maintain & controls the posture & equilibrium of the body
consists of i.medulla oblongata, ii.cerebellum or small brain iii.pons
bones are connected by Ligaments.
NUTRIENTS
Carbohydrates
C:H:O = 1:2:1
immediate energy
1gm = 4.2kcal
wheat, rice, maize, potato
stored in form of Glycogen
Amylase enzyme → break down carbohydrates.
The end product of carbohydrates is Glucose.
Sugarcane → Glucose + Fructose.
Glucose + Fructose → Sucrose (found in Sugarcane)
Glucose + Glucose → Maltose
Glucose + Galactose → Lactose( found in milk)
Classification
Monosaccharides → Fructose, Glucose(a hexose sugar & give fastest energy),
Oligosaccharides → Maltose , sucrose , lactose
Polysaccharides →
Protein
Complex organic compound made up of 20 types of amino acid, 12 are synthesised by body & rest 8 are essential amino acid obtained by food
Eggs contain all essential amino acid
Soybeans is the richest source of protein = 42%
Milk contain Casein protein
fⁿ → formation of cells, protoplasm & tissue
Disease → Kwashiorkor(in childrens) & marasmus
Fats
Highest Gross calorific value
1gm = 9.3kcal
Solid state up to 20° otherwise liquid
Fⁿ → Energy, prevent loss of heat, protects body part from injury
Rancidity → Oxidation of fat & oil leads to change in food taste
Vitamins
Sir F.G.Hopkins
Zero calories
Water soluble → BC
Fat soluble → KEDA
*RaTh A C To.Phy*
Vitamin B = 08 types
B3 ( Niacin) - pellagra.
B2 ( Riboflavin) -
B5 (Pantothenic acid) -
B12(Cyanocobalamin) - 90% in egg yolk.
cobalt is found in Vitamin B12
A & D are dangerous if they are taken in excess.
D absorb Calcium
Colour blind cant distinguish b/w Red & Green
D & K synthesize in our body.
K by intestinal bacteria & D by
A mainly stored in the liver.
Malnutrition or undernutrition → Eating a diet having not enough or too much nutrition that causes health problems.
HUMAN DISEASE
‘Health’ is a state of being well enough to function well physically, mentally and socially.
Disease literally means being uncomfortable.
Helicobacter Pylori → Responsible for peptic ulcers.
Halitosis → Bad breath
Cephalgia → Headache
Hypertension → High BP , Hypotension → Low BP.
Amoebiasis Cause Dysentry an infection caused by Entamoeba histolytica
Needles are used in Acupuncture treatment.
Chocolates have a high content of Nickel → risk to child health
MRI → Magnetic Resonance imaging
Amoebiasis Causes Dysentry an infection caused by Entamoeba histolytica
Acute diseases
Diseases last for only very short periods of time,
e.g. cough & cold,
Chronic diseases
last for a long time, even as much as a lifetime,
e.g elephantiasis,tuberculosis of the lungs,
Non infectious diseases
cancers are caused by genetic abnormalities.
High blood pressure can be caused by excessive weight and lack of exercise.
infectious diseases
Infectious agent : viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoans, worms
protozoans are single-celled animals
Viruses, bacteria and fungi multiply very quickly,
i). By protozoa (Pa KaaM De Sote)
Pyorrhoea →
Kala-azar → bone marrow
Malaria → RBC & Liver
Diarrhoea → intestine
Sleeping Sickness
ii) By Bacteria
Tetanus
Fever
Cholera
Typhoid
Tuberculosis (white plague)
Plague
Anthrax
iii) Virus
AIDS, Elisa Test - test of HIV virus
Dengue fever
Polio
influenza(flu)
Chicken pox
common cold
Hepatitis or jaundice
Measles →
iv) Fungus
many common skin infections or diseases.
Asthma
Athlete's foot
Scabies
Baldness
Ringworm
v) intestinal worm
Elephantiasis,
Deficiency of
iodine : Goitre
Means Of Spread
communicable diseases
Many microbial agents can commonly move from an affected person to someone else in a variety of ways.
Examples
1. By Water
Hepatitis A & E, cholera,
2. By Air
Tuberculosis, common cold, pneumonia,smallpox,influenza, coughing
Japanese encephalitis, or brain fever caused by mosquito bite.
inflammation
An active immune system recruits many cells to the affected tissue to kill off the disease-causing microbes.
Hydrophobia-bite of mad dog
Hypermetropia- long sightedness→Convex lens
Myopia- short sightedness→ Concave lens
Cancer→ uncontrolled growth of cell by multiplication
HIV-AIDS
HIV virus destroys Lymphocytes
the virus goes to the immune system and damages its function
every small cold can become pneumonia
A minor gut infection can produce major diarrhea with blood loss.
Principles Of Treatment
two ways to treat an infectious disease
a) Reduce the effects of the disease
treatment, medicine, bed rest,
b) other to kill the cause of the disease
Antibiotics ; block biochemical pathways important for bacteria.
Antiviral medicines are harder than making antibacterial medicines because viruses have few biochemical mechanisms of their own.
Principles Of Prevention
Three limitations of this approach to dealing with infectious disease.
Once someone has a disease, their body functions are damaged and may never recover completely.
Treatment will take time, which means that someone suffering from a disease is likely to be bedridden for some time even if we can give proper treatment.
The person suffering from an infectious disease can serve as the source from where the infection may spread to other people.
Pulse Polio Program
Discoveries
Antibiotic penicillin: Alexander Fleming
Smallpox vaccine : by Edward jenner
Polio : john salk
DOSE
Bryophyllum : reproduce vegetatively by leaves.
pisces = 2 chamber, Amphibia & Reptilia = 3 chamber
master gland of body → Pituitary gland
Pyrometer→Radiation Meter
Soybean→Glycine max , boneless meat
ECG- Electro cardio graph to find abnormalities of heart
MRI- Magnetic resonance imaging
BMD- Bone mineral density test← Osteoporosis
ER : Endoplasmic Reticulum.
most green algae live in freshwater
IUCN
International Union for Conservation of Nature
maintenance Red Data Book for species
Hibernation
in winter lizard go for a long sleep
Amphibians like toads,lizards & frog undergo hibernation
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